diff --git a/jest.setup.cjs b/jest.setup.cjs
index 2686c4c7f..8ac092a83 100644
--- a/jest.setup.cjs
+++ b/jest.setup.cjs
@@ -1,3 +1,10 @@
+// Pre-load @defra/forms-model to ensure Joi internals are initialised before any test
+// file runs. This prevents a Symbol identity mismatch between the ESM-wrapped Joi
+// instance (created by babel-jest) and the CJS Joi instance used by Joi's internal
+// Template.isTemplate() check, which occurs when resetModules: true clears the
+// registry between tests.
+require('@defra/forms-model')
+
 process.env.REDIS_HOST = 'dummy'
 process.env.REDIS_KEY_PREFIX = 'forms-designer'
 process.env.REDIS_PASSWORD = 'dummy'
diff --git a/package-lock.json b/package-lock.json
index 7913b5fce..6177a4dc3 100644
--- a/package-lock.json
+++ b/package-lock.json
@@ -49,6 +49,7 @@
         "highlight.js": "^11.11.1",
         "http-status-codes": "^2.3.0",
         "humanize-duration": "^3.33.1",
+        "i18next": "^26.0.5",
         "ioredis": "^5.8.2",
         "joi": "^17.13.3",
         "liquidjs": "^10.24.0",
@@ -150,7 +151,7 @@
       },
       "engines": {
         "node": ">=22.11.0 <25.0.0",
-        "npm": ">=10.9.0 <11.6.4"
+        "npm": ">=10.9.0 <=11.17.0"
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@adobe/css-tools": {
@@ -212,12 +213,12 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@babel/code-frame": {
-      "version": "7.29.0",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/code-frame/-/code-frame-7.29.0.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-9NhCeYjq9+3uxgdtp20LSiJXJvN0FeCtNGpJxuMFZ1Kv3cWUNb6DOhJwUvcVCzKGR66cw4njwM6hrJLqgOwbcw==",
+      "version": "7.29.7",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/code-frame/-/code-frame-7.29.7.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-Aup7aUOfpbAUg2ROOJN6Iw5f9DMBlzu0mIkm/malLQFN/YQgO48wCj0Kxa3sEHJvPVFg7siR+qRInwXd2qhQKw==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
-        "@babel/helper-validator-identifier": "^7.28.5",
+        "@babel/helper-validator-identifier": "^7.29.7",
         "js-tokens": "^4.0.0",
         "picocolors": "^1.1.1"
       },
@@ -226,29 +227,29 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@babel/compat-data": {
-      "version": "7.29.0",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/compat-data/-/compat-data-7.29.0.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-T1NCJqT/j9+cn8fvkt7jtwbLBfLC/1y1c7NtCeXFRgzGTsafi68MRv8yzkYSapBnFA6L3U2VSc02ciDzoAJhJg==",
+      "version": "7.29.7",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/compat-data/-/compat-data-7.29.7.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-locTkQyKvwIEgBzVrn8693ebc97F2U8ZHjbXwDXJ5Fn2TCpNwTlKcaKLkdHop5c/icOFE7qt7Q9JC5hnKNa6Gg==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "engines": {
         "node": ">=6.9.0"
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@babel/core": {
-      "version": "7.29.0",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/core/-/core-7.29.0.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-CGOfOJqWjg2qW/Mb6zNsDm+u5vFQ8DxXfbM09z69p5Z6+mE1ikP2jUXw+j42Pf1XTYED2Rni5f95npYeuwMDQA==",
-      "license": "MIT",
-      "dependencies": {
-        "@babel/code-frame": "^7.29.0",
-        "@babel/generator": "^7.29.0",
-        "@babel/helper-compilation-targets": "^7.28.6",
-        "@babel/helper-module-transforms": "^7.28.6",
-        "@babel/helpers": "^7.28.6",
-        "@babel/parser": "^7.29.0",
-        "@babel/template": "^7.28.6",
-        "@babel/traverse": "^7.29.0",
-        "@babel/types": "^7.29.0",
+      "version": "7.29.7",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/core/-/core-7.29.7.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-RgHBCvtjbOK2gXSNBNIkNoEc9qoVEtau3hj8gEqKQuL3HZAibKarWFEI3Lfm6EYKkLalOh8eSrj9b+ch9H/VBA==",
+      "license": "MIT",
+      "dependencies": {
+        "@babel/code-frame": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/generator": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/helper-compilation-targets": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/helper-module-transforms": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/helpers": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/parser": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/template": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/traverse": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/types": "^7.29.7",
         "@jridgewell/remapping": "^2.3.5",
         "convert-source-map": "^2.0.0",
         "debug": "^4.1.0",
@@ -265,13 +266,13 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@babel/generator": {
-      "version": "7.29.1",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/generator/-/generator-7.29.1.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-qsaF+9Qcm2Qv8SRIMMscAvG4O3lJ0F1GuMo5HR/Bp02LopNgnZBC/EkbevHFeGs4ls/oPz9v+Bsmzbkbe+0dUw==",
+      "version": "7.29.7",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/generator/-/generator-7.29.7.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-DkXD5OJQaAQIdZ1bt3UZdEnHAn9Imd3IVBdX03UFe+ony9Ojw5pzr9YVKGDY1jt+Gcn/FnGkNf8r+Vj5NOJWtQ==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
-        "@babel/parser": "^7.29.0",
-        "@babel/types": "^7.29.0",
+        "@babel/parser": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/types": "^7.29.7",
         "@jridgewell/gen-mapping": "^0.3.12",
         "@jridgewell/trace-mapping": "^0.3.28",
         "jsesc": "^3.0.2"
@@ -293,13 +294,13 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@babel/helper-compilation-targets": {
-      "version": "7.28.6",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/helper-compilation-targets/-/helper-compilation-targets-7.28.6.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-JYtls3hqi15fcx5GaSNL7SCTJ2MNmjrkHXg4FSpOA/grxK8KwyZ5bubHsCq8FXCkua6xhuaaBit+3b7+VZRfcA==",
+      "version": "7.29.7",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/helper-compilation-targets/-/helper-compilation-targets-7.29.7.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-wem6WaBj4NaVYVdNhLPPVacES6ZJ+KBBfSkTMD3YZxbP3rm3Di85tJU5ljaUNhaOynt+Aj0xruhYuzQBt8n71g==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
-        "@babel/compat-data": "^7.28.6",
-        "@babel/helper-validator-option": "^7.27.1",
+        "@babel/compat-data": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/helper-validator-option": "^7.29.7",
         "browserslist": "^4.24.0",
         "lru-cache": "^5.1.1",
         "semver": "^6.3.1"
@@ -363,9 +364,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@babel/helper-globals": {
-      "version": "7.28.0",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/helper-globals/-/helper-globals-7.28.0.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-+W6cISkXFa1jXsDEdYA8HeevQT/FULhxzR99pxphltZcVaugps53THCeiWA8SguxxpSp3gKPiuYfSWopkLQ4hw==",
+      "version": "7.29.7",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/helper-globals/-/helper-globals-7.29.7.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-3nQVUAtvkKH9zahfWgw96Jc/uFOmjACE1kQz82E2lqWmHBgjzbNlsC22nuQTfahmWeQtTq5nQ/4Nnd2A1wj4zA==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "engines": {
         "node": ">=6.9.0"
@@ -385,27 +386,27 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@babel/helper-module-imports": {
-      "version": "7.28.6",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/helper-module-imports/-/helper-module-imports-7.28.6.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-l5XkZK7r7wa9LucGw9LwZyyCUscb4x37JWTPz7swwFE/0FMQAGpiWUZn8u9DzkSBWEcK25jmvubfpw2dnAMdbw==",
+      "version": "7.29.7",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/helper-module-imports/-/helper-module-imports-7.29.7.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-ejHwrQQYcm9xnTivShn2IDOlIzInN34AXskvq9QicvCtEzq1Vzclu/tKF8Jq1Cg8JG2GL6/EmjgsCT7lXepE3g==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
-        "@babel/traverse": "^7.28.6",
-        "@babel/types": "^7.28.6"
+        "@babel/traverse": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/types": "^7.29.7"
       },
       "engines": {
         "node": ">=6.9.0"
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@babel/helper-module-transforms": {
-      "version": "7.28.6",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/helper-module-transforms/-/helper-module-transforms-7.28.6.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-67oXFAYr2cDLDVGLXTEABjdBJZ6drElUSI7WKp70NrpyISso3plG9SAGEF6y7zbha/wOzUByWWTJvEDVNIUGcA==",
+      "version": "7.29.7",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/helper-module-transforms/-/helper-module-transforms-7.29.7.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-UPUVSyXbOh627KiCIGQSgwWzGeBKLkaJ9PJEdrngIwMSzxLR4jS4+f1f1jb7VzBbg8nFLaYotvVPFCTqdrmTAg==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
-        "@babel/helper-module-imports": "^7.28.6",
-        "@babel/helper-validator-identifier": "^7.28.5",
-        "@babel/traverse": "^7.28.6"
+        "@babel/helper-module-imports": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/helper-validator-identifier": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/traverse": "^7.29.7"
       },
       "engines": {
         "node": ">=6.9.0"
@@ -483,27 +484,27 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@babel/helper-string-parser": {
-      "version": "7.27.1",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/helper-string-parser/-/helper-string-parser-7.27.1.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-qMlSxKbpRlAridDExk92nSobyDdpPijUq2DW6oDnUqd0iOGxmQjyqhMIihI9+zv4LPyZdRje2cavWPbCbWm3eA==",
+      "version": "7.29.7",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/helper-string-parser/-/helper-string-parser-7.29.7.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-Pb5ijPrZ89GDH8223L4UP8i6QApWxs04RbPQJTeWDV0/keR2E36MeKnyr6LYmUUvqRRI+Iv87SuF1W6ErINzYw==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "engines": {
         "node": ">=6.9.0"
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@babel/helper-validator-identifier": {
-      "version": "7.28.5",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/helper-validator-identifier/-/helper-validator-identifier-7.28.5.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-qSs4ifwzKJSV39ucNjsvc6WVHs6b7S03sOh2OcHF9UHfVPqWWALUsNUVzhSBiItjRZoLHx7nIarVjqKVusUZ1Q==",
+      "version": "7.29.7",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/helper-validator-identifier/-/helper-validator-identifier-7.29.7.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-qehxGkRj55h/ff8EMaJ+cYhyaKlHIxqYDn682wQD7RNp9UujOQsHog2uS0r2vzr4pW+sXf90NeeayjcNaX3fFg==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "engines": {
         "node": ">=6.9.0"
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@babel/helper-validator-option": {
-      "version": "7.27.1",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/helper-validator-option/-/helper-validator-option-7.27.1.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-YvjJow9FxbhFFKDSuFnVCe2WxXk1zWc22fFePVNEaWJEu8IrZVlda6N0uHwzZrUM1il7NC9Mlp4MaJYbYd9JSg==",
+      "version": "7.29.7",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/helper-validator-option/-/helper-validator-option-7.29.7.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-N9ZErrD+yW5geCDtBqnOoxmR8+tNKiGuxKlDpuJxfsqpa2dFcexaziGAE/qoHLiDDreVNMupxGmSoNlyvsA3gw==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "engines": {
         "node": ">=6.9.0"
@@ -524,25 +525,25 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@babel/helpers": {
-      "version": "7.28.6",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/helpers/-/helpers-7.28.6.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-xOBvwq86HHdB7WUDTfKfT/Vuxh7gElQ+Sfti2Cy6yIWNW05P8iUslOVcZ4/sKbE+/jQaukQAdz/gf3724kYdqw==",
+      "version": "7.29.7",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/helpers/-/helpers-7.29.7.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-1k2lAGRMfHTcwuNYcCNUmaUffmQv8KWMfh2iJUUeRlwlwH4FdNG7mfPI10NPfLHJFThE4Tyr4mv7kTNZOiPuBg==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
-        "@babel/template": "^7.28.6",
-        "@babel/types": "^7.28.6"
+        "@babel/template": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/types": "^7.29.7"
       },
       "engines": {
         "node": ">=6.9.0"
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@babel/parser": {
-      "version": "7.29.0",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/parser/-/parser-7.29.0.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-IyDgFV5GeDUVX4YdF/3CPULtVGSXXMLh1xVIgdCgxApktqnQV0r7/8Nqthg+8YLGaAtdyIlo2qIdZrbCv4+7ww==",
+      "version": "7.29.7",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/parser/-/parser-7.29.7.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-hnORnjP/1P/zFEndoeX+n+t1RwWRJiJpM/jO7FW32Kn9r5+sJB2JWOdYo4L6k78j15eCwY3Gm/7364B1EMwtNg==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
-        "@babel/types": "^7.29.0"
+        "@babel/types": "^7.29.7"
       },
       "bin": {
         "parser": "bin/babel-parser.js"
@@ -1981,40 +1982,40 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@babel/runtime": {
-      "version": "7.28.6",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/runtime/-/runtime-7.28.6.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-05WQkdpL9COIMz4LjTxGpPNCdlpyimKppYNoJ5Di5EUObifl8t4tuLuUBBZEpoLYOmfvIWrsp9fCl0HoPRVTdA==",
+      "version": "7.29.2",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/runtime/-/runtime-7.29.2.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-JiDShH45zKHWyGe4ZNVRrCjBz8Nh9TMmZG1kh4QTK8hCBTWBi8Da+i7s1fJw7/lYpM4ccepSNfqzZ/QvABBi5g==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "engines": {
         "node": ">=6.9.0"
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@babel/template": {
-      "version": "7.28.6",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/template/-/template-7.28.6.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-YA6Ma2KsCdGb+WC6UpBVFJGXL58MDA6oyONbjyF/+5sBgxY/dwkhLogbMT2GXXyU84/IhRw/2D1Os1B/giz+BQ==",
+      "version": "7.29.7",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/template/-/template-7.29.7.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-puq+Gf35oI24FeN11LkoUQFqv9uwNeWpxXZi/Ji3rRIoKAzKnxRaZ+Gkj0vKS9ZCiTESfng1N9LyOyXvo+m+Gg==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
-        "@babel/code-frame": "^7.28.6",
-        "@babel/parser": "^7.28.6",
-        "@babel/types": "^7.28.6"
+        "@babel/code-frame": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/parser": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/types": "^7.29.7"
       },
       "engines": {
         "node": ">=6.9.0"
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@babel/traverse": {
-      "version": "7.29.0",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/traverse/-/traverse-7.29.0.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-4HPiQr0X7+waHfyXPZpWPfWL/J7dcN1mx9gL6WdQVMbPnF3+ZhSMs8tCxN7oHddJE9fhNE7+lxdnlyemKfJRuA==",
+      "version": "7.29.7",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/traverse/-/traverse-7.29.7.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-EhlfNQtZ+NK22w5BM61ciuiq1m58ed33Wr1Xan//ZRTy6hgjnwyCffRYwzsGXdASJSUJ1guZILsErh1eQcl+zw==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
-        "@babel/code-frame": "^7.29.0",
-        "@babel/generator": "^7.29.0",
-        "@babel/helper-globals": "^7.28.0",
-        "@babel/parser": "^7.29.0",
-        "@babel/template": "^7.28.6",
-        "@babel/types": "^7.29.0",
+        "@babel/code-frame": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/generator": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/helper-globals": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/parser": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/template": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/types": "^7.29.7",
         "debug": "^4.3.1"
       },
       "engines": {
@@ -2022,13 +2023,13 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@babel/types": {
-      "version": "7.29.0",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/types/-/types-7.29.0.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-LwdZHpScM4Qz8Xw2iKSzS+cfglZzJGvofQICy7W7v4caru4EaAmyUuO6BGrbyQ2mYV11W0U8j5mBhd14dd3B0A==",
+      "version": "7.29.7",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/types/-/types-7.29.7.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-4zBIxpPzowiZpusoFkyGVwakdRJUyuH5PxQ/PrqghfdFWWasvnCdPfQXHrenDai+gyLARulZjZowCOj6fjT4pA==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
-        "@babel/helper-string-parser": "^7.27.1",
-        "@babel/helper-validator-identifier": "^7.28.5"
+        "@babel/helper-string-parser": "^7.29.7",
+        "@babel/helper-validator-identifier": "^7.29.7"
       },
       "engines": {
         "node": ">=6.9.0"
@@ -5653,9 +5654,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@hapi/content": {
-      "version": "6.0.1",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@hapi/content/-/content-6.0.1.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-lQ2vOoFMNYxwKVnKf+3Pi3PfoviM4EJYlT9JbrBPfEc0xKMiVDqqXF8UTE1S1oKhHQliWSP5t6zTKNlmaXBGcQ==",
+      "version": "6.0.2",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@hapi/content/-/content-6.0.2.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-OKyCOTjNR1hftwSjk9ueyAQTw8AwapvzBrPIWMGn39vhR5PmqLdYFmLc35bsSBye7gSMnlkXfc679bUdMIcRyQ==",
       "license": "BSD-3-Clause",
       "dependencies": {
         "@hapi/boom": "^10.0.0"
@@ -5745,9 +5746,9 @@
       "license": "BSD-3-Clause"
     },
     "node_modules/@hapi/inert": {
-      "version": "7.1.0",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@hapi/inert/-/inert-7.1.0.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-5X+cl/Ozm0U9uPGGX1dSKhnhTQIf161bH/kkTN9OBVAZKFG+nrj8j/NMj6S1zBBZWmQrkVRNPfCUGrXzB4fCFQ==",
+      "version": "7.1.2",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@hapi/inert/-/inert-7.1.2.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-fr0XmsYTUhahIbioBemFlc+o4ro4bj1HPMKN3dG9m6XC+UkF9fdVYfb7uNoDj0vO+HdXendbKk6YEfZG9ToeTQ==",
       "license": "BSD-3-Clause",
       "dependencies": {
         "@hapi/ammo": "^6.0.1",
@@ -5986,9 +5987,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@hapi/wreck": {
-      "version": "18.1.0",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@hapi/wreck/-/wreck-18.1.0.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-0z6ZRCmFEfV/MQqkQomJ7sl/hyxvcZM7LtuVqN3vdAO4vM9eBbowl0kaqQj9EJJQab+3Uuh1GxbGIBFy4NfJ4w==",
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-      "integrity": "sha512-otDA4ldcIx+ZXsKHWmp0YizCweVRZG96J10b0FevjfuncLO1oX59THoAmHkNubYJ+9gWsYsp5k8v4ib6oDv1fA==",
+      "version": "17.13.4",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/joi/-/joi-17.13.4.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-1RuuER6kmt8K8I3nIWvPZKi5RQCb568ZPyY4Pwjlua+yo+63ZTmIwxLZH0heBmiKN4uxjvCiarDrjaeH84xicQ==",
       "license": "BSD-3-Clause",
       "dependencies": {
         "@hapi/hoek": "^9.3.0",
@@ -22622,9 +22732,19 @@
       "license": "MIT"
     },
     "node_modules/js-yaml": {
-      "version": "4.1.1",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/js-yaml/-/js-yaml-4.1.1.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-qQKT4zQxXl8lLwBtHMWwaTcGfFOZviOJet3Oy/xmGk2gZH677CJM9EvtfdSkgWcATZhj/55JZ0rmy3myCT5lsA==",
+      "version": "4.2.0",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/js-yaml/-/js-yaml-4.2.0.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-ePWsvanv0DWuDRsW8dnt+R4jQ31SCRCQ7hhNcPXZPsoBZiemuZNYGf7adZdqX2D86j6rvKp3RpCxVTSb8WQlOw==",
+      "funding": [
+        {
+          "type": "github",
+          "url": "https://github.com/sponsors/puzrin"
+        },
+        {
+          "type": "github",
+          "url": "https://github.com/sponsors/nodeca"
+        }
+      ],
       "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
         "argparse": "^2.0.1"
@@ -22838,13 +22958,13 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/launch-editor": {
-      "version": "2.13.1",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/launch-editor/-/launch-editor-2.13.1.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-lPSddlAAluRKJ7/cjRFoXUFzaX7q/YKI7yPHuEvSJVqoXvFnJov1/Ud87Aa4zULIbA9Nja4mSPK8l0z/7eV2wA==",
+      "version": "2.14.1",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/launch-editor/-/launch-editor-2.14.1.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-QWBrQsMpH7gPr965dsKD/3cKWiNoTjpATQf++Xq63N6sKRGMwlVXz41O1IZTMfZQgBctD/K5Zt06+/I6pP6+HA==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
         "picocolors": "^1.1.1",
-        "shell-quote": "^1.8.3"
+        "shell-quote": "^1.8.4"
       }
     },
     "node_modules/leven": {
@@ -23084,9 +23204,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/liquidjs": {
-      "version": "10.25.7",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/liquidjs/-/liquidjs-10.25.7.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-rPCjJLiD4eDhQjvv964AeXFC+HbeYBbZrd7Z82Q6hqv1lX7G+5w4SJcKLn9CAAAwHI4aS3dTdo083UB79K3pDA==",
+      "version": "10.27.1",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/liquidjs/-/liquidjs-10.27.1.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-ylE+1q2kSef1UxAyxqbyuWM3FRWS1v48JK1Y3CoW3bD6TSNXZh0+GsVnihujEpKyR+Jejx2aRAFfC3AHm9rElg==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
         "commander": "^10.0.0"
@@ -29377,10 +29497,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/qs": {
-      "version": "6.15.0",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/qs/-/qs-6.15.0.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-mAZTtNCeetKMH+pSjrb76NAM8V9a05I9aBZOHztWy/UqcJdQYNsf59vrRKWnojAT9Y+GbIvoTBC++CPHqpDBhQ==",
-      "dev": true,
+      "version": "6.15.2",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/qs/-/qs-6.15.2.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-Rzq0KEyX/w/tEybncDgdkZrJgVUsUMk3xjh3t5bv3S1HTAtg+uOYt72+ZfwiQwKdysThkTBdL/rTi6HDmX9Ddw==",
       "license": "BSD-3-Clause",
       "dependencies": {
         "side-channel": "^1.1.0"
@@ -29582,6 +29701,22 @@
       "dev": true,
       "license": "MIT"
     },
+    "node_modules/react-is-18": {
+      "name": "react-is",
+      "version": "18.3.1",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/react-is/-/react-is-18.3.1.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-/LLMVyas0ljjAtoYiPqYiL8VWXzUUdThrmU5+n20DZv+a+ClRoevUzw5JxU+Ieh5/c87ytoTBV9G1FiKfNJdmg==",
+      "dev": true,
+      "license": "MIT"
+    },
+    "node_modules/react-is-19": {
+      "name": "react-is",
+      "version": "19.2.7",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/react-is/-/react-is-19.2.7.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-kZFnouyVv7eP/Phmrlo9FK+zcAdriZJvzxXHF1Sl1P377WSGe2G/JxVolhTrB/jeV47lKImhNUsijjHAAbcl/A==",
+      "dev": true,
+      "license": "MIT"
+    },
     "node_modules/react-loadable": {
       "name": "@docusaurus/react-loadable",
       "version": "6.0.0",
@@ -31528,9 +31663,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/shell-quote": {
-      "version": "1.8.3",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/shell-quote/-/shell-quote-1.8.3.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-ObmnIF4hXNg1BqhnHmgbDETF8dLPCggZWBjkQfhZpbszZnYur5DUljTcCHii5LC3J5E0yeO/1LIMyH+UvHQgyw==",
+      "version": "1.8.4",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/shell-quote/-/shell-quote-1.8.4.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-VsC6n6vz1ihYYyZZwX7YZSF5l5x36ca17OC+a69h94YqB7X6XLwf+5MOgynYir2SLFUbl8gIYvBo8K8RoNQ6bQ==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "engines": {
         "node": ">= 0.4"
@@ -32807,13 +32942,13 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/synckit": {
-      "version": "0.11.12",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/synckit/-/synckit-0.11.12.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-Bh7QjT8/SuKUIfObSXNHNSK6WHo6J1tHCqJsuaFDP7gP0fkzSfTxI8y85JrppZ0h8l0maIgc2tfuZQ6/t3GtnQ==",
+      "version": "0.11.13",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/synckit/-/synckit-0.11.13.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-eNRKgb3z66Yp3D2CixVujOUvXLFUTij/zVnV8KRyvFdQwpz7I5DS8UfRkTeLzb64u+dkzDSdelE24izu+zSSUg==",
       "dev": true,
       "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
-        "@pkgr/core": "^0.2.9"
+        "@pkgr/core": "^0.3.6"
       },
       "engines": {
         "node": "^14.18.0 || >=16.0.0"
@@ -33633,9 +33768,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/undici": {
-      "version": "7.25.0",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/undici/-/undici-7.25.0.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-xXnp4kTyor2Zq+J1FfPI6Eq3ew5h6Vl0F/8d9XU5zZQf1tX9s2Su1/3PiMmUANFULpmksxkClamIZcaUqryHsQ==",
+      "version": "7.28.0",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/undici/-/undici-7.28.0.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-cRZYrTDwWznlnRiPjggAGxZXanty6M8RV1ff8Wm4LWXBp7/IG8v5DnOm74DtUBp9OONpK75YlPnIjQqX0dBDtA==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "engines": {
         "node": ">=20.18.1"
@@ -34355,9 +34490,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/webpack-bundle-analyzer/node_modules/ws": {
-      "version": "7.5.10",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/ws/-/ws-7.5.10.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-+dbF1tHwZpXcbOJdVOkzLDxZP1ailvSxM6ZweXTegylPny803bFhA+vqBYw4s31NSAk4S2Qz+AKXK9a4wkdjcQ==",
+      "version": "7.5.11",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/ws/-/ws-7.5.11.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-zS54Oen9bITtp7kp2XM3AydrCIq1D+HwJOuH+c+e4LfpL/lotP5osijd+UoMnxwAam1GN8R4KtLAyIrIcBNpiA==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "engines": {
         "node": ">=8.3.0"
@@ -34493,9 +34628,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/webpack-dev-server": {
-      "version": "5.2.4",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/webpack-dev-server/-/webpack-dev-server-5.2.4.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-GqDPGZN9bRqKBTkp4aWkobDDHMsrXKoGSdOH56smIri8qR0JG8gfL8/v/f/OZR3/OKXjG8uwJbFVhKm/FNU/UA==",
+      "version": "5.2.5",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/webpack-dev-server/-/webpack-dev-server-5.2.5.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-4wZtCquSuv9CKX8oybo+mqxtxZqWz47uM1Ch94lxowBztOhWCbhqvRbfC/mODOwxgV2brY+JGZpHq58/SuVFYg==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
         "@types/bonjour": "^3.5.13",
@@ -34993,9 +35128,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/ws": {
-      "version": "8.20.1",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/ws/-/ws-8.20.1.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-It4dO0K5v//JtTXuPkfEOaI3uUN87iYPnqo/ZzqCoG3g8uhA66QUMs/SrM0YK7/NAu+r4LMh/9dq2A7k+rHs+w==",
+      "version": "8.21.0",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/ws/-/ws-8.21.0.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-Vsp28b7DRcimFQvrqu2Wek3z1iYxDCWqHYB8Qsnk/S4RfaCQzPGPyBNuVjJV3cd6UiKtUtp6sNM77gWvzcCH+g==",
       "license": "MIT",
       "engines": {
         "node": ">=10.0.0"
diff --git a/package.json b/package.json
index 68ef845be..ad861377e 100644
--- a/package.json
+++ b/package.json
@@ -83,7 +83,7 @@
   },
   "engines": {
     "node": ">=22.11.0 <25.0.0",
-    "npm": ">=10.9.0 <11.6.4"
+    "npm": ">=10.9.0 <=11.17.0"
   },
   "license": "SEE LICENSE IN LICENSE",
   "dependencies": {
@@ -126,6 +126,7 @@
     "highlight.js": "^11.11.1",
     "http-status-codes": "^2.3.0",
     "humanize-duration": "^3.33.1",
+    "i18next": "^26.0.5",
     "ioredis": "^5.8.2",
     "joi": "^17.13.3",
     "liquidjs": "^10.24.0",
diff --git a/scripts/generate-component-previews.js b/scripts/generate-component-previews.js
index 9ab7856b3..59c492d8d 100644
--- a/scripts/generate-component-previews.js
+++ b/scripts/generate-component-previews.js
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ import { markdownToHtml } from '@defra/forms-model'
 
 // Static imports so Jest can mock them (dynamic computed-path imports cannot be mocked).
 import { createComponent } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import { environment } from '~/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/environment.js'
 
 // Register the markdown filter that the engine plugin normally adds at server init.
@@ -26,7 +27,11 @@ export function renderComponent(fixture) {
     /** @type {unknown} */ (fixture.model)
   )
   const component = createComponent(fixture.def, { model })
-  const viewModel = component.getViewModel(fixture.payload, [])
+  const viewModel = component.getViewModel({
+    payload: fixture.payload,
+    errors: [],
+    translator: stubTranslator
+  })
 
   // Apply large label/legend sizing to match how QuestionPageController styles
   // a single-component page. isPageHeading is intentionally omitted — setting it
diff --git a/scripts/generate-component-previews.test.js b/scripts/generate-component-previews.test.js
index 033e6213e..dc91aa861 100644
--- a/scripts/generate-component-previews.test.js
+++ b/scripts/generate-component-previews.test.js
@@ -27,6 +27,7 @@ import {
 } from './generate-component-previews.js'
 
 import { createComponent } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.ts'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import { environment } from '~/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/environment.js'
 
 describe('component-preview-fixtures', () => {
@@ -132,6 +133,10 @@ describe('buildPartialMdx', () => {
 describe('renderComponent', () => {
   let mockGetViewModel
 
+  const mockModel = {
+    createTranslator: () => stubTranslator
+  }
+
   beforeEach(() => {
     mockGetViewModel = jest.fn().mockReturnValue({
       type: 'TextField',
@@ -145,22 +150,32 @@ describe('renderComponent', () => {
   })
 
   it('calls createComponent with def and model from fixture', () => {
-    renderComponent(fixtures.TextField)
+    renderComponent({
+      ...fixtures.TextField,
+      model: mockModel
+    })
     expect(createComponent).toHaveBeenCalledWith(fixtures.TextField.def, {
-      model: fixtures.TextField.model
+      model: mockModel
     })
   })
 
   it('calls getViewModel with payload and empty errors array', () => {
-    renderComponent(fixtures.TextField)
-    expect(mockGetViewModel).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
-      fixtures.TextField.payload,
-      []
-    )
+    renderComponent({
+      ...fixtures.TextField,
+      model: mockModel
+    })
+    expect(mockGetViewModel).toHaveBeenCalledWith({
+      payload: {},
+      errors: [],
+      translator: stubTranslator
+    })
   })
 
   it('passes viewModel wrapped as { type, model } to renderString', () => {
-    renderComponent(fixtures.TextField)
+    renderComponent({
+      ...fixtures.TextField,
+      model: mockModel
+    })
     expect(environment.renderString).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
       expect.stringContaining('componentList'),
       expect.objectContaining({
diff --git a/scripts/page-preview-fixtures.js b/scripts/page-preview-fixtures.js
index bc4858d29..a4452f180 100644
--- a/scripts/page-preview-fixtures.js
+++ b/scripts/page-preview-fixtures.js
@@ -65,9 +65,14 @@ function pageViewContext({
       server: { plugins: { 'forms-engine-plugin': {} } }
     })
   )
+  const translator = model.createTranslator()
   return getViewModelOverride
     ? getViewModelOverride(controller, model, mockRequest, mockContext)
-    : controller.getViewModel(/** @type {any} */ (mockRequest), mockContext)
+    : controller.getViewModel(
+        /** @type {any} */ (mockRequest),
+        mockContext,
+        translator
+      )
 }
 
 const fileUploadWithFilesVariant = /** @type {any} */ (
@@ -192,13 +197,18 @@ export const pageFixtures = {
           ]
         }
       ],
-      getViewModelOverride: (ctrl, _model, req, ctx) => {
+      getViewModelOverride: (ctrl, model, req, ctx) => {
         const repeat = /** @type {RepeatPageController} */ (ctrl)
-        const vm = repeat.getListSummaryViewModel(req, ctx, [
-          { itemId: '1', fullname: 'Sarah Phillips' },
-          { itemId: '2', fullname: 'David Jones' },
-          { itemId: '3', fullname: 'Emma Wilson' }
-        ])
+        const vm = repeat.getListSummaryViewModel(
+          req,
+          ctx,
+          [
+            { itemId: '1', fullname: 'Sarah Phillips' },
+            { itemId: '2', fullname: 'David Jones' },
+            { itemId: '3', fullname: 'Emma Wilson' }
+          ],
+          model.createTranslator()
+        )
         return /** @type {PageViewModel} */ (
           /** @type {unknown} */ ({
             ...vm,
@@ -300,10 +310,12 @@ export const pageFixtures = {
       ],
       renderPage: '/summary',
       state: { fullname: 'Sarah Phillips', email: 'sarah@example.gov.uk' },
-      getViewModelOverride: (ctrl, _model, req, ctx) => {
+      getViewModelOverride: (ctrl, model, req, ctx) => {
         const summary = /** @type {SummaryPageController} */ (ctrl)
         return /** @type {PageViewModel} */ (
-          /** @type {unknown} */ (summary.getSummaryViewModel(req, ctx))
+          /** @type {unknown} */ (
+            summary.getSummaryViewModel(req, ctx, model.createTranslator())
+          )
         )
       }
     })
diff --git a/src/server/forms/register-as-a-unicorn-breeder.yaml b/src/server/forms/register-as-a-unicorn-breeder.yaml
index 66683758b..fa653641d 100644
--- a/src/server/forms/register-as-a-unicorn-breeder.yaml
+++ b/src/server/forms/register-as-a-unicorn-breeder.yaml
@@ -242,20 +242,6 @@ pages:
         content: 'Fill in this field'
         options:
           required: false
-    next:
-      - path: '/pay-for-your-licence'
-  - title: Pay for your licence
-    path: '/pay-for-your-licence'
-    section: section
-    components:
-      - name: licencePayment
-        title: Unicorn breeder licence fee
-        type: PaymentField
-        hint: You'll be redirected to GOV.UK Pay to complete your payment
-        options:
-          required: true
-          amount: 50
-          description: Unicorn breeder annual licence fee
     next:
       - path: '/summary'
 conditions:
diff --git a/src/server/forms/simple-form-pirate.yaml b/src/server/forms/simple-form-pirate.yaml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..d40991279
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/server/forms/simple-form-pirate.yaml
@@ -0,0 +1,80 @@
+---
+name: Pirate Form
+engine: V2
+schema: 2
+startPage: '/summary'
+metadata:
+  language: x-pirate
+pages:
+  - title: Yer name, landlubber
+    path: '/your-name'
+    components:
+      - type: TextField
+        title: What be yer first name?
+        name: applicantFirstName
+        shortDescription: Yer first name
+        hint: ''
+        options:
+          required: true
+        schema: {}
+        id: 1fb8e182-c709-4792-8f83-e01d8b1fee1a
+      - type: TextField
+        title: What be yer last name?
+        name: applicantLastName
+        shortDescription: Yer last name
+        hint: ''
+        options:
+          required: true
+        schema: {}
+        id: b68df7f1-d4f4-4c17-83c8-402f584906c9
+    next: []
+    id: 622a35ec-3795-418a-81f3-a45746959045
+  - title: Hoist yer passport
+    controller: FileUploadPageController
+    path: '/upload-passport'
+    components:
+      - type: FileUploadField
+        title: Hoist a copy of yer passport, arrr
+        name: passportUpload
+        shortDescription: Hoist passport
+        hint: ''
+        options:
+          required: false
+        schema: {}
+        id: 987c1234-56d7-89e0-1234-56789abcdef0
+    id: 23456789-0abc-def1-2345-67890abcdef1
+  - title: Hoist yer ship's licence
+    controller: FileUploadPageController
+    path: '/upload-driving-licence'
+    components:
+      - type: FileUploadField
+        title: Hoist a copy of yer drivers licence, matey
+        name: driversLicenceUpload
+        shortDescription: Hoist drivers licence
+        hint: ''
+        options:
+          required: false
+        schema: {}
+        id: 987c1234-56d7-89e0-1234-56789abcdef1
+    id: 23456789-0abc-def1-2345-67890abcdef2
+  - title: ''
+    path: '/date-of-birth'
+    components:
+      - type: DatePartsField
+        title: When did {{ applicantFirstName }} {{ applicantLastName }} first set sail?
+        name: dateOfBirth
+        shortDescription: Yer birthday
+        hint: ''
+        options:
+          required: true
+        schema: {}
+        id: '00738799-3489-4ab2-a57b-542eecb31bfa'
+    next: []
+    id: da0fbdb4-a2de-4650-be16-9ba552af135f
+  - id: 449a45f6-4541-4a46-91bd-8b8931b07b50
+    title: ''
+    path: '/summary'
+    controller: SummaryPageController
+conditions: []
+sections: []
+lists: []
diff --git a/src/server/forms/simple-form.yaml b/src/server/forms/simple-form.yaml
index af1f92f38..06cc23655 100644
--- a/src/server/forms/simple-form.yaml
+++ b/src/server/forms/simple-form.yaml
@@ -3,6 +3,57 @@ name: Page events
 engine: V2
 schema: 2
 startPage: '/summary'
+metadata:
+  language: en-GB
+  translations:
+    cy:
+      components:
+        1fb8e182-c709-4792-8f83-e01d8b1fee1a:
+          title: Beth yw eich enw cyntaf?
+          shortDescription: Eich enw cyntaf
+        b68df7f1-d4f4-4c17-83c8-402f584906c9:
+          title: Beth yw eich enw olaf?
+          shortDescription: Eich enw olaf
+        987c1234-56d7-89e0-1234-56789abcdef0:
+          title: Llwytho copi o'ch pasbort
+          shortDescription: Llwytho pasbort
+        987c1234-56d7-89e0-1234-56789abcdef1:
+          title: Llwytho copi o'ch trwydded yrru
+          shortDescription: Llwytho trwydded yrru
+        00738799-3489-4ab2-a57b-542eecb31bfa:
+          title: Pryd yw pen-blwydd {{ applicantFirstName }} {{ applicantLastName }}?
+          shortDescription: Eich pen-blwydd
+        123e4567-e89b-12d3-a456-426614174000:
+          title: Beth yw eich cyfeiriad?
+          shortDescription: Eich cyfeiriad
+        aabbccdd-1122-3344-5566-778899001123:
+          title: Oes gennych chi drwydded yrru?
+          shortDescription: Trwydded yrru
+        aabbccdd-1122-3344-5566-778899001124:
+          title: Sut rydych chi fel arfer yn teithio?
+          shortDescription: Eich ffordd o deithio
+      listItems:
+        aabbccdd-1122-3344-5566-778899001126:
+          text: Car
+        aabbccdd-1122-3344-5566-778899001127:
+          text: Bws
+        aabbccdd-1122-3344-5566-778899001128:
+          text: Trên
+      pages:
+        622a35ec-3795-418a-81f3-a45746959045:
+          title: Eich enw
+        23456789-0abc-def1-2345-67890abcdef1:
+          title: Llwytho copi o'ch pasbort
+        23456789-0abc-def1-2345-67890abcdef2:
+          title: Llwytho copi o'ch trwydded yrru
+        da0fbdb4-a2de-4650-be16-9ba552af135f:
+          title: Dyddiad geni
+        449a45f6-4541-4a46-91bd-8b8931b07b50:
+          title: Crynodeb
+        123e4567-e89b-12d3-a456-426614174001:
+          title: Ble rydych chi'n byw?
+        aabbccdd-1122-3344-5566-778899001122:
+          title: Amdanoch chi
 pages:
   - title: Your name
     path: '/your-name'
@@ -36,6 +87,21 @@ pages:
         id: e18116e0-7c3e-416a-af42-6f229017c5b1
     next: []
     id: 622a35ec-3795-418a-81f3-a45746959045
+  - title: Where do you live?
+    path: '/where-you-live'
+    components:
+      - type: UkAddressField
+        title: What is your address?
+        name: applicantAddress
+        shortDescription: Your address
+        hint: ''
+        options:
+          required: true
+          usePostcodeLookup: true
+        schema: {}
+        id: 123e4567-e89b-12d3-a456-426614174000
+    next: []
+    id: 123e4567-e89b-12d3-a456-426614174001
   - title: Upload a copy of your passport
     controller: FileUploadPageController
     path: '/upload-passport'
@@ -46,7 +112,7 @@ pages:
         shortDescription: Upload passport
         hint: ''
         options:
-          required: true
+          required: false
         schema: {}
         id: 987c1234-56d7-89e0-1234-56789abcdef0
     id: 23456789-0abc-def1-2345-67890abcdef1
@@ -60,7 +126,7 @@ pages:
         shortDescription: Upload drivers licence
         hint: ''
         options:
-          required: true
+          required: false
         schema: {}
         id: 987c1234-56d7-89e0-1234-56789abcdef1
     id: 23456789-0abc-def1-2345-67890abcdef2
@@ -78,6 +144,29 @@ pages:
         id: '00738799-3489-4ab2-a57b-542eecb31bfa'
     next: []
     id: da0fbdb4-a2de-4650-be16-9ba552af135f
+  - title: About you
+    path: '/about-you'
+    components:
+      - type: YesNoField
+        title: Do you have a driving licence?
+        name: hasDrivingLicence
+        shortDescription: Driving licence
+        hint: ''
+        options: {}
+        schema: {}
+        id: aabbccdd-1122-3344-5566-778899001123
+      - type: RadiosField
+        title: How do you usually travel?
+        name: travelMethod
+        shortDescription: Your travel method
+        hint: ''
+        options:
+          required: true
+        schema: {}
+        list: aabbccdd-1122-3344-5566-778899001125
+        id: aabbccdd-1122-3344-5566-778899001124
+    next: []
+    id: aabbccdd-1122-3344-5566-778899001122
   - title: ''
     path: '/notification-demo'
     components:
@@ -103,4 +192,18 @@ pages:
     controller: SummaryPageController
 conditions: []
 sections: []
-lists: []
+lists:
+  - id: aabbccdd-1122-3344-5566-778899001125
+    name: travelMethods
+    title: Travel methods
+    type: string
+    items:
+      - id: aabbccdd-1122-3344-5566-778899001126
+        text: Car
+        value: car
+      - id: aabbccdd-1122-3344-5566-778899001127
+        text: Bus
+        value: bus
+      - id: aabbccdd-1122-3344-5566-778899001128
+        text: Train
+        value: train
diff --git a/src/server/index.test.ts b/src/server/index.test.ts
index 919d7a5d9..1c6a6f208 100644
--- a/src/server/index.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/index.test.ts
@@ -617,7 +617,8 @@ describe('prepareEnvironment', () => {
       'checkComponentTemplates',
       'checkErrorTemplates',
       'evaluate',
-      'govukRebrand'
+      'govukRebrand',
+      't'
     ]
 
     prepareNunjucksEnvironment(mockEnv, mockPluginOptions)
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/AutocompleteField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/AutocompleteField.test.ts
index a94f0574d..080f5a7dc 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/AutocompleteField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/AutocompleteField.test.ts
@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@ import {
   type Field
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import {
   listNumber,
   listNumberExamples,
@@ -20,6 +21,10 @@ import {
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 import { getFormData, getFormState } from '~/test/helpers/component-helpers.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe.each([
   {
     component: {
@@ -206,8 +211,8 @@ describe.each([
         const state1 = getFormState(item.value)
         const state2 = getFormState(null)
 
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, translator)
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, translator)
 
         expect(answer1).toBe(item.text)
         expect(answer2).toBe('')
@@ -265,7 +270,11 @@ describe.each([
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults', () => {
         const item = options.examples[0]
 
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData(item.value))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData(item.value),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -280,7 +289,11 @@ describe.each([
       it.each([...options.examples])(
         'sets Nunjucks component autocomplete suggestions',
         (item) => {
-          const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData(item.value))
+          const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+            payload: getFormData(item.value),
+            errors: undefined,
+            translator: stubTranslator
+          })
 
           expect(viewModel.items?.[0]).toMatchObject({
             value: '' // First item is always empty
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/AutocompleteField.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/AutocompleteField.ts
index 2a9067ff6..312d38ba6 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/AutocompleteField.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/AutocompleteField.ts
@@ -1,11 +1,8 @@
 import { type AutocompleteFieldComponent } from '@defra/forms-model'
 
 import { SelectField } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/SelectField.js'
+import { type RenderContext } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
 import { messageTemplate } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.js'
-import {
-  type FormPayload,
-  type FormSubmissionError
-} from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 
 export class AutocompleteField extends SelectField {
   declare options: AutocompleteFieldComponent['options']
@@ -34,8 +31,8 @@ export class AutocompleteField extends SelectField {
     this.formSchema = formSchema
   }
 
-  getViewModel(payload: FormPayload, errors?: FormSubmissionError[]) {
-    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+  getViewModel(context: RenderContext) {
+    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(context)
     let { formGroup } = viewModel
 
     formGroup ??= {}
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/CheckboxesField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/CheckboxesField.test.ts
index 3b3b28189..f2b80974b 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/CheckboxesField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/CheckboxesField.test.ts
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ import {
   type Field
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import {
   listNumber,
   listNumberExamples,
@@ -22,6 +23,10 @@ import {
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 import { getFormData, getFormState } from '~/test/helpers/component-helpers.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe.each([
   {
     component: {
@@ -304,8 +309,8 @@ describe.each([
           const state1 = getFormState([item.value])
           const state2 = getFormState(null)
 
-          const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-          const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+          const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, translator)
+          const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, translator)
 
           expect(answer1).toBe(outdent`
             <ul>
@@ -322,7 +327,7 @@ describe.each([
         const item2 = options.examples[2]
 
         const state = getFormState([item1.value, item2.value])
-        const answer = getAnswer(field, state)
+        const answer = getAnswer(field, state, translator)
 
         expect(answer).toBe(outdent`
           <ul>
@@ -384,7 +389,11 @@ describe.each([
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults', () => {
         const item = options.examples[0]
 
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData([item.value]))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData([item.value]),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -399,7 +408,11 @@ describe.each([
       it.each([...options.examples])(
         'sets Nunjucks component checkbox items',
         (item) => {
-          const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData([item.value]))
+          const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+            payload: getFormData([item.value]),
+            errors: undefined,
+            translator: stubTranslator
+          })
 
           expect(viewModel.items?.[0]).not.toMatchObject({
             value: '' // First item is never empty
@@ -448,13 +461,19 @@ describe.each([
     describe('getDisplayStringFromFormValue', () => {
       it('returns empty string when value is undefined', () => {
         const checkboxField = field as CheckboxesField
-        const result = checkboxField.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(undefined)
+        const result = checkboxField.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(
+          undefined,
+          translator
+        )
         expect(result).toBe('')
       })
 
       it('returns empty string when value is empty array', () => {
         const checkboxField = field as CheckboxesField
-        const result = checkboxField.getDisplayStringFromFormValue([])
+        const result = checkboxField.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(
+          [],
+          translator
+        )
         expect(result).toBe('')
       })
 
@@ -462,9 +481,10 @@ describe.each([
         'returns text for single selected value',
         (item) => {
           const checkboxField = field as CheckboxesField
-          const result = checkboxField.getDisplayStringFromFormValue([
-            item.value
-          ])
+          const result = checkboxField.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(
+            [item.value],
+            translator
+          )
           expect(result).toBe(item.text)
         }
       )
@@ -474,10 +494,10 @@ describe.each([
         const item1 = options.examples[0]
         const item2 = options.examples[2]
 
-        const result = checkboxField.getDisplayStringFromFormValue([
-          item1.value,
-          item2.value
-        ])
+        const result = checkboxField.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(
+          [item1.value, item2.value],
+          translator
+        )
 
         expect(result).toBe(`${item1.text}, ${item2.text}`)
       })
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/CheckboxesField.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/CheckboxesField.ts
index 399867ee3..f6bc84bdd 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/CheckboxesField.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/CheckboxesField.ts
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ import joi, { type ArraySchema } from 'joi'
 
 import { isFormValue } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FormComponent.js'
 import { SelectionControlField } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/SelectionControlField.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { type FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
 import { type QuestionPageController } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/QuestionPageController.js'
 import { messageTemplate } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.js'
@@ -41,9 +42,9 @@ export class CheckboxesField extends SelectionControlField {
       .label(this.label)
       .required()
       .messages({
-        'array.min': messageTemplate.arrayMin as string,
-        'array.max': messageTemplate.arrayMax as string,
-        'array.length': messageTemplate.arrayLength as string
+        'array.min': messageTemplate.arrayMin,
+        'array.max': messageTemplate.arrayMax,
+        'array.length': messageTemplate.arrayLength
       })
 
     if (options.required === false) {
@@ -86,7 +87,8 @@ export class CheckboxesField extends SelectionControlField {
   }
 
   getDisplayStringFromFormValue(
-    selected: (string | number | boolean)[] | undefined
+    selected: (string | number | boolean)[] | undefined,
+    translator: Translator
   ) {
     const { items } = this
 
@@ -94,10 +96,9 @@ export class CheckboxesField extends SelectionControlField {
       return ''
     }
 
-    // Map selected values to text
     return items
       .filter((item) => selected.includes(item.value))
-      .map((item) => item.text)
+      .map((item) => translator.tListItem(item, 'text') || item.text)
       .join(', ')
   }
 
@@ -118,12 +119,12 @@ export class CheckboxesField extends SelectionControlField {
     return values ?? []
   }
 
-  getDisplayStringFromState(state: FormSubmissionState) {
-    // Selected checkbox values
+  getDisplayStringFromState(
+    state: FormSubmissionState,
+    translator: Translator
+  ) {
     const selected = this.getFormValueFromState(state) ?? []
-
-    // Map selected values to text
-    return this.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(selected)
+    return this.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(selected, translator)
   }
 
   getContextValueFromState(state: FormSubmissionState) {
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/ComponentCollection.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/ComponentCollection.ts
index df0ae3f48..2d42772d9 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/ComponentCollection.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/ComponentCollection.ts
@@ -16,11 +16,18 @@ import {
   type Field,
   type Guidance
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
-import { type ComponentViewModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
+import {
+  type ComponentViewModel,
+  type RenderContext
+} from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
 import { getErrors } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { type FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/index.js'
 import { type PageControllerClass } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/helpers/pages.js'
-import { validationOptions as opts } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.js'
+import {
+  buildLanguageMessages,
+  validationOptions as opts
+} from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.js'
 import {
   type FormPayload,
   type FormState,
@@ -28,7 +35,6 @@ import {
   type FormSubmissionState,
   type FormValidationResult
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
-import { type FormQuery } from '~/src/server/routes/types.js'
 
 export class ComponentCollection {
   page?: PageControllerClass
@@ -215,8 +221,14 @@ export class ComponentCollection {
   /**
    * Get all errors for all fields in this collection
    */
-  getErrors(errors?: FormSubmissionError[]): FormSubmissionError[] | undefined {
-    return this.getFieldErrors((field) => field.getErrors(errors), errors)
+  getErrors(
+    translator: Translator,
+    errors?: FormSubmissionError[]
+  ): FormSubmissionError[] | undefined {
+    return this.getFieldErrors(
+      (field) => field.getErrors(translator, errors),
+      errors
+    )
   }
 
   /**
@@ -225,16 +237,16 @@ export class ComponentCollection {
    * Composite fields like UKAddress can choose to return more than one error.
    */
   getViewErrors(
+    translator: Translator,
     errors?: FormSubmissionError[]
   ): FormSubmissionError[] | undefined {
-    return this.getFieldErrors((field) => field.getViewErrors(errors), errors)
+    return this.getFieldErrors(
+      (field) => field.getViewErrors(translator, errors),
+      errors
+    )
   }
 
-  getViewModel(
-    payload: FormPayload,
-    errors?: FormSubmissionError[],
-    query: FormQuery = {}
-  ) {
+  getViewModel(context: RenderContext) {
     const { components } = this
 
     const result: ComponentViewModel[] = components.map((component) => {
@@ -242,7 +254,7 @@ export class ComponentCollection {
 
       const model =
         component instanceof FormComponent
-          ? component.getViewModel(payload, errors, query)
+          ? component.getViewModel(context)
           : component.getViewModel()
 
       return { type, isFormComponent, model }
@@ -254,8 +266,67 @@ export class ComponentCollection {
   /**
    * Validate form payload
    */
-  validate(value: FormPayload = {}): FormValidationResult<FormPayload> {
-    const result = this.formSchema.validate(value, opts)
+  validate(
+    value: FormPayload = {},
+    translator?: Translator
+  ): FormValidationResult<FormPayload> {
+    const messages = translator
+      ? buildLanguageMessages(translator.t)
+      : undefined
+
+    // When translating, override Joi labels (and custom schema messages where
+    // needed) so #label/#title in message templates resolve in the correct language.
+    let schema = this.formSchema
+    if (translator) {
+      const { t } = translator
+      const labelOverrides: Record<string, joi.Schema> = {}
+
+      for (const field of this.fields) {
+        if (field.collection) {
+          // Composite field: translate each sub-field's label using the key constant
+          // (e.g. 'components.addressField.line1' → "Llinell cyfeiriad 1") and apply
+          // any field-type-specific message overrides (e.g. objectMissing for dates).
+          const messagesOverride =
+            field.getValidationMessagesOverride(translator)
+          for (const subField of field.collection.fields) {
+            const translatedSubLabel = t(subField.title) || subField.label
+            let patchedSchema = subField.formSchema.label(translatedSubLabel)
+            if (messagesOverride) {
+              patchedSchema = patchedSchema.messages(messagesOverride)
+            }
+            labelOverrides[subField.name] = patchedSchema
+          }
+        } else {
+          const translatedLabel =
+            translator.tComponent(
+              field as unknown as ComponentDef,
+              'shortDescription'
+            ) ||
+            translator.tComponent(field as unknown as ComponentDef, 'title')
+          const messagesOverride =
+            field.getValidationMessagesOverride(translator)
+          let patchedSchema = field.formSchema
+          if (translatedLabel && translatedLabel !== field.label) {
+            patchedSchema = patchedSchema.label(translatedLabel)
+          }
+          if (messagesOverride) {
+            patchedSchema = patchedSchema.messages(messagesOverride)
+          }
+          if (patchedSchema !== field.formSchema) {
+            labelOverrides[field.name] = patchedSchema
+          }
+        }
+      }
+
+      if (Object.keys(labelOverrides).length) {
+        schema = schema.keys(labelOverrides)
+      }
+    }
+
+    const result = schema.validate(value, {
+      ...opts,
+      ...(messages && { messages })
+    })
 
     const details = result.error?.details
 
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/DatePartsField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/DatePartsField.test.ts
index 3435cd5dd..464e9a11a 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/DatePartsField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/DatePartsField.test.ts
@@ -2,12 +2,14 @@ import { ComponentType, type DatePartsFieldComponent } from '@defra/forms-model'
 import { addDays, format, startOfDay } from 'date-fns'
 
 import { ComponentCollection } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/ComponentCollection.js'
+import { type DatePartsField } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/DatePartsField.js'
 import {
   getAnswer,
   type Field
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { type DateInputItem } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import {
   type ErrorMessageTemplateList,
   type FormPayload,
@@ -15,6 +17,10 @@ import {
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe('DatePartsField', () => {
   let model: FormModel
 
@@ -50,21 +56,27 @@ describe('DatePartsField', () => {
         expect(keys).toHaveProperty(
           'myComponent__day',
           expect.objectContaining({
-            flags: expect.objectContaining({ label: 'Day' })
+            flags: expect.objectContaining({
+              label: 'components.dateField.day'
+            })
           })
         )
 
         expect(keys).toHaveProperty(
           'myComponent__month',
           expect.objectContaining({
-            flags: expect.objectContaining({ label: 'Month' })
+            flags: expect.objectContaining({
+              label: 'components.dateField.month'
+            })
           })
         )
 
         expect(keys).toHaveProperty(
           'myComponent__year',
           expect.objectContaining({
-            flags: expect.objectContaining({ label: 'Year' })
+            flags: expect.objectContaining({
+              label: 'components.dateField.year'
+            })
           })
         )
       })
@@ -163,9 +175,11 @@ describe('DatePartsField', () => {
         )
 
         expect(result1.errors).toBeUndefined()
+        // Sub-field title is a key constant; error text uses the raw key until
+        // request-time resolution is wired in (Task 8 / Task 9).
         expect(result2.errors).toEqual([
           expect.objectContaining({
-            text: 'Example date parts field must include a month'
+            text: 'Example date parts field must include a components.dateField.month'
           })
         ])
       })
@@ -210,15 +224,16 @@ describe('DatePartsField', () => {
           })
         )
 
+        // Sub-field titles are key constants; error text uses raw keys until Task 9.
         expect(result.errors).toEqual([
           expect.objectContaining({
-            text: 'Example date parts must include a day'
+            text: 'Example date parts must include a components.dateField.day'
           }),
           expect.objectContaining({
-            text: 'Example date parts must include a month'
+            text: 'Example date parts must include a components.dateField.month'
           }),
           expect.objectContaining({
-            text: 'Example date parts must include a year'
+            text: 'Example date parts must include a components.dateField.year'
           })
         ])
       })
@@ -272,8 +287,8 @@ describe('DatePartsField', () => {
         const state1 = getFormState(date)
         const state2 = getFormState({})
 
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, translator)
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, translator)
 
         expect(answer1).toBe('31 December 2024')
         expect(answer2).toBe('')
@@ -351,7 +366,11 @@ describe('DatePartsField', () => {
 
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults', () => {
         const payload = getFormData(date)
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload)
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload,
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -395,7 +414,11 @@ describe('DatePartsField', () => {
           year: 'YYYY'
         })
 
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload)
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload,
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -418,7 +441,11 @@ describe('DatePartsField', () => {
 
       it('sets Nunjucks component fieldset', () => {
         const payload = getFormData(date)
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload)
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload,
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel.fieldset).toEqual({
           legend: {
@@ -921,6 +948,39 @@ describe('DatePartsField', () => {
       )
     })
   })
+
+  describe('sub-field title key constants', () => {
+    let dateParts: DatePartsField
+
+    beforeEach(() => {
+      const def: DatePartsFieldComponent = {
+        title: 'Date of birth',
+        name: 'dob',
+        type: ComponentType.DatePartsField,
+        options: {}
+      }
+      const coll = new ComponentCollection([def], { model })
+      dateParts = coll.fields[0] as DatePartsField
+    })
+
+    it('stores day sub-field title as i18next key constant', () => {
+      expect(dateParts.collection.fields[0].title).toBe(
+        'components.dateField.day'
+      )
+    })
+
+    it('stores month sub-field title as i18next key constant', () => {
+      expect(dateParts.collection.fields[1].title).toBe(
+        'components.dateField.month'
+      )
+    })
+
+    it('stores year sub-field title as i18next key constant', () => {
+      expect(dateParts.collection.fields[2].title).toBe(
+        'components.dateField.year'
+      )
+    })
+  })
 })
 
 /**
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/DatePartsField.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/DatePartsField.ts
index 7ab4038ed..32a9245f1 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/DatePartsField.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/DatePartsField.ts
@@ -11,16 +11,18 @@ import {
 import { NumberField } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/NumberField.js'
 import {
   type DateInputItem,
-  type DatePartsState
+  type DatePartsState,
+  type RenderContext
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
 import { parseStrictDate } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/date-helper.js'
+import { buildValidationMessages } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/buildValidationMessages.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { messageTemplate } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.js'
 import {
   type ErrorMessageTemplateList,
   type FormPayload,
   type FormState,
   type FormStateValue,
-  type FormSubmissionError,
   type FormSubmissionState
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 import { convertToLanguageMessages } from '~/src/server/utils/type-utils.js'
@@ -56,7 +58,7 @@ export class DatePartsField extends FormComponent {
         {
           type: ComponentType.NumberField,
           name: `${name}__day`,
-          title: 'Day',
+          title: 'components.dateField.day',
           schema: { min: 1, max: 31, precision: 0 },
           options: {
             required: isRequired,
@@ -68,7 +70,7 @@ export class DatePartsField extends FormComponent {
         {
           type: ComponentType.NumberField,
           name: `${name}__month`,
-          title: 'Month',
+          title: 'components.dateField.month',
           schema: { min: 1, max: 12, precision: 0 },
           options: {
             required: isRequired,
@@ -80,7 +82,7 @@ export class DatePartsField extends FormComponent {
         {
           type: ComponentType.NumberField,
           name: `${name}__year`,
-          title: 'Year',
+          title: 'components.dateField.year',
           schema: { min: 1000, max: 3000, precision: 0 },
           options: {
             required: isRequired,
@@ -107,7 +109,10 @@ export class DatePartsField extends FormComponent {
     return this.isState(value) ? value : undefined
   }
 
-  getDisplayStringFromFormValue(formValue: DatePartsState | undefined) {
+  getDisplayStringFromFormValue(
+    formValue: DatePartsState | undefined,
+    _translator: Translator
+  ) {
     if (!formValue) {
       return ''
     }
@@ -118,10 +123,13 @@ export class DatePartsField extends FormComponent {
     )
   }
 
-  getDisplayStringFromState(state: FormSubmissionState) {
+  getDisplayStringFromState(
+    state: FormSubmissionState,
+    translator: Translator
+  ) {
     const value = this.getFormValueFromState(state)
 
-    return this.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(value)
+    return this.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(value, translator)
   }
 
   getContextValueFromFormValue(value: DatePartsState | undefined) {
@@ -148,10 +156,24 @@ export class DatePartsField extends FormComponent {
     return this.getContextValueFromFormValue(value)
   }
 
-  getViewModel(payload: FormPayload, errors?: FormSubmissionError[]) {
+  getValidationMessagesOverride(translator: Translator) {
+    const { t } = translator
+    return convertToLanguageMessages({
+      'any.required': buildValidationMessages(t).objectMissing,
+      'number.base': buildValidationMessages(t).objectMissing,
+      'number.precision': buildValidationMessages(t).dateFormat,
+      'number.integer': buildValidationMessages(t).dateFormat,
+      'number.unsafe': buildValidationMessages(t).dateFormat,
+      'number.min': buildValidationMessages(t).dateFormat,
+      'number.max': buildValidationMessages(t).dateFormat
+    })
+  }
+
+  getViewModel(context: RenderContext) {
+    const { errors } = context
     const { collection, name } = this
 
-    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(context)
     let { fieldset, label } = viewModel
 
     // Check for component errors only
@@ -159,7 +181,7 @@ export class DatePartsField extends FormComponent {
 
     // Use the component collection to generate the subitems
     const items: DateInputItem[] = collection
-      .getViewModel(payload, errors)
+      .getViewModel(context)
       .map(({ model }) => {
         let { label, type, value, classes, errorMessage } = model
 
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/DeclarationField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/DeclarationField.test.ts
index c81a4ab79..1bdc92597 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/DeclarationField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/DeclarationField.test.ts
@@ -10,11 +10,16 @@ import {
   type Field
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 import declarationWithGuidance from '~/test/form/definitions/declaration-with-guidance.js'
 import declarationWithoutGuidance from '~/test/form/definitions/declaration-without-guidance.js'
 import { getFormData, getFormState } from '~/test/helpers/component-helpers.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe('DeclarationField', () => {
   let model: FormModel
 
@@ -184,8 +189,8 @@ describe('DeclarationField', () => {
         // context - boolean
         // state - boolean
         // string - I confirm that I understand and accept this declaration
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, translator)
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, translator)
 
         expect(answer1).toBe('I understand and agree')
         expect(answer2).toBe('Not provided')
@@ -241,7 +246,11 @@ describe('DeclarationField', () => {
 
     describe('View model', () => {
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults', () => {
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData(undefined))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData(undefined),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -275,7 +284,11 @@ describe('DeclarationField', () => {
 
         collection = new ComponentCollection([def], { model })
         field = collection.fields[0]
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData('unchecked'))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData('unchecked'),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -301,7 +314,11 @@ describe('DeclarationField', () => {
 
         collection = new ComponentCollection([def], { model })
         field = collection.fields[0]
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData(['true', 'unchecked']))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData(['true', 'unchecked']),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -327,7 +344,11 @@ describe('DeclarationField', () => {
 
         collection = new ComponentCollection([def], { model })
         field = collection.fields[0]
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData(['unchecked']))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData(['unchecked']),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -353,7 +374,11 @@ describe('DeclarationField', () => {
 
         collection = new ComponentCollection([def], { model })
         field = collection.fields[0]
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData('true'))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData('true'),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -388,7 +413,11 @@ describe('DeclarationField', () => {
         collection = new ComponentCollection([def], { model })
         field = collection.fields[0]
 
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData('true'))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData('true'),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -412,7 +441,11 @@ describe('DeclarationField', () => {
         collection = new ComponentCollection([def], { model })
         field = collection.fields[0]
 
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData(undefined))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData(undefined),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/DeclarationField.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/DeclarationField.ts
index dcaa7a1cb..709a68cc7 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/DeclarationField.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/DeclarationField.ts
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ import {
 import joi, {
   type ArraySchema,
   type BooleanSchema,
+  type LanguageMessages,
   type StringSchema
 } from 'joi'
 
@@ -15,23 +16,23 @@ import {
   FormComponent,
   isFormValue
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FormComponent.js'
+import { type RenderContext } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
+import { buildValidationMessages } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/buildValidationMessages.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { messageTemplate } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.js'
 import {
   type ErrorMessageTemplateList,
   type FormPayload,
   type FormState,
   type FormStateValue,
-  type FormSubmissionError,
   type FormSubmissionState,
   type FormValue
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 
 export class DeclarationField extends FormComponent {
-  private readonly DEFAULT_DECLARATION_LABEL = 'I understand and agree'
-
   declare options: DeclarationFieldComponent['options']
 
-  declare declarationConfirmationLabel: string
+  declare declarationConfirmationLabel: string | undefined
 
   declare formSchema: ArraySchema<StringSchema[]>
   declare stateSchema: BooleanSchema
@@ -69,8 +70,9 @@ export class DeclarationField extends FormComponent {
 
     this.options = options
     this.content = content
-    this.declarationConfirmationLabel =
-      options.declarationConfirmationLabel ?? this.DEFAULT_DECLARATION_LABEL
+    // Store only the form-authored label (if provided). If absent, getViewModel
+    // resolves the default via t() at render time so the correct language is used.
+    this.declarationConfirmationLabel = options.declarationConfirmationLabel
     const formComponents = hasFormComponents(props.page?.pageDef)
       ? props.page.pageDef.components
       : []
@@ -114,20 +116,40 @@ export class DeclarationField extends FormComponent {
     return this.isValue(value) ? value : undefined
   }
 
-  getDisplayStringFromFormValue(value: FormValue | FormPayload): string {
-    return value === 'true' ? this.declarationConfirmationLabel : 'Not provided'
+  getValidationMessagesOverride(translator: Translator) {
+    const { declarationRequired } = buildValidationMessages(translator.t)
+    const msg = declarationRequired as unknown as string
+    return {
+      'any.required': msg,
+      'any.unknown': msg,
+      'array.includesRequiredUnknowns': msg
+    } as unknown as LanguageMessages
+  }
+
+  getDisplayStringFromFormValue(
+    value: FormValue | FormPayload,
+    translator: Translator
+  ): string {
+    const { t } = translator
+    return value === 'true'
+      ? (this.declarationConfirmationLabel ??
+          t('components.declarationField.defaultLabel'))
+      : t('components.declarationField.notProvided')
   }
 
-  getViewModel(payload: FormPayload, errors?: FormSubmissionError[]) {
-    const defaultDeclarationConfirmationLabel =
-      'I confirm that I understand and accept this declaration'
+  getViewModel(context: RenderContext) {
+    const { payload } = context
+    const { t } = context.translator
+
     const {
       hint,
       content,
-      declarationConfirmationLabel = defaultDeclarationConfirmationLabel
+      declarationConfirmationLabel = t(
+        'components.declarationField.defaultLabel'
+      )
     } = this
 
-    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(context)
     let { fieldset, label } = viewModel
 
     fieldset ??= {
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/EastingNorthingField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/EastingNorthingField.test.ts
index 3f43699a4..fafa40e1f 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/EastingNorthingField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/EastingNorthingField.test.ts
@@ -10,9 +10,14 @@ import {
   type Field
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import { type FormSubmissionError } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe('EastingNorthingField', () => {
   let model: FormModel
 
@@ -49,14 +54,20 @@ describe('EastingNorthingField', () => {
         expect(keys).toHaveProperty(
           'myComponent__easting',
           expect.objectContaining({
-            flags: expect.objectContaining({ label: 'Easting' })
+            flags: expect.objectContaining({
+              label: 'components.eastingNorthingField.easting'
+            })
+            // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
           })
         )
 
         expect(keys).toHaveProperty(
           'myComponent__northing',
           expect.objectContaining({
-            flags: expect.objectContaining({ label: 'Northing' })
+            flags: expect.objectContaining({
+              label: 'components.eastingNorthingField.northing'
+            })
+            // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
           })
         )
       })
@@ -202,8 +213,8 @@ describe('EastingNorthingField', () => {
         })
         const state2 = getFormState({})
 
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, translator)
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, translator)
 
         expect(answer1).toBe('Easting: 12345<br>Northing: 1234567<br>')
         expect(answer2).toBe('')
@@ -286,7 +297,11 @@ describe('EastingNorthingField', () => {
           easting: 12345,
           northing: 1234567
         })
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload)
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload,
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -298,13 +313,19 @@ describe('EastingNorthingField', () => {
             },
             items: [
               expect.objectContaining({
-                label: expect.objectContaining({ text: 'Easting' }),
+                label: expect.objectContaining({
+                  text: 'Easting'
+                }),
+                // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                 name: 'myComponent__easting',
                 id: 'myComponent__easting',
                 value: 12345
               }),
               expect.objectContaining({
-                label: expect.objectContaining({ text: 'Northing' }),
+                label: expect.objectContaining({
+                  text: 'Northing'
+                }),
+                // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                 name: 'myComponent__northing',
                 id: 'myComponent__northing',
                 value: 1234567
@@ -323,12 +344,14 @@ describe('EastingNorthingField', () => {
           { model }
         )
 
-        const viewModel = componentWithInstruction.getViewModel(
-          getFormData({
+        const viewModel = componentWithInstruction.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData({
             easting: 12345,
             northing: 1234567
-          })
-        )
+          }),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         const instructionText =
           'instructionText' in viewModel ? viewModel.instructionText : undefined
@@ -351,7 +374,11 @@ describe('EastingNorthingField', () => {
           }
         ]
 
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload,
+          errors,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         // Check that error is passed to the viewModel
         expect(viewModel.errors).toEqual(errors)
@@ -388,7 +415,7 @@ describe('EastingNorthingField', () => {
           }
         ]
 
-        const viewErrors = field.getViewErrors(errors)
+        const viewErrors = field.getViewErrors(translator, errors)
 
         // Should return all errors, not just the first one
         expect(viewErrors).toHaveLength(2)
@@ -448,6 +475,20 @@ describe('EastingNorthingField', () => {
         )
       })
     })
+
+    describe('sub-field title key constants', () => {
+      it('stores sub-field titles as i18next key constants', () => {
+        const locationField = collection.fields[0] as EastingNorthingField
+        const subFields = locationField.collection.fields
+
+        expect(subFields[0].title).toBe(
+          'components.eastingNorthingField.easting'
+        )
+        expect(subFields[1].title).toBe(
+          'components.eastingNorthingField.northing'
+        )
+      })
+    })
   })
 
   describe('Validation', () => {
@@ -516,7 +557,8 @@ describe('EastingNorthingField', () => {
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
                   text: expect.stringMatching(
-                    /Easting for .* must be between 1000 and 60000/
+                    /components\.eastingNorthingField\.easting for .* must be between 1000 and 60000/
+                    // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                   )
                 })
               ]
@@ -535,7 +577,8 @@ describe('EastingNorthingField', () => {
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
                   text: expect.stringMatching(
-                    /Easting for .* must be between 1000 and 60000/
+                    /components\.eastingNorthingField\.easting for .* must be between 1000 and 60000/
+                    // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                   )
                 })
               ]
@@ -571,7 +614,8 @@ describe('EastingNorthingField', () => {
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
                   text: expect.stringMatching(
-                    /Northing for .* must be between 1000 and 1200000/
+                    /components\.eastingNorthingField\.northing for .* must be between 1000 and 1200000/
+                    // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                   )
                 })
               ]
@@ -590,7 +634,8 @@ describe('EastingNorthingField', () => {
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
                   text: expect.stringMatching(
-                    /Northing for .* must be between 1000 and 1200000/
+                    /components\.eastingNorthingField\.northing for .* must be between 1000 and 1200000/
+                    // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                   )
                 })
               ]
@@ -621,7 +666,8 @@ describe('EastingNorthingField', () => {
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
                   text: expect.stringMatching(
-                    /Easting for .* must be between 1 and 6 digits/
+                    /components\.eastingNorthingField\.easting for .* must be between 1 and 6 digits/
+                    // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                   )
                 })
               ]
@@ -640,7 +686,8 @@ describe('EastingNorthingField', () => {
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
                   text: expect.stringMatching(
-                    /Northing for .* must be between 1 and 7 digits/
+                    /components\.eastingNorthingField\.northing for .* must be between 1 and 7 digits/
+                    // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                   )
                 })
               ]
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/EastingNorthingField.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/EastingNorthingField.ts
index 45f184c49..b4dd517e1 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/EastingNorthingField.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/EastingNorthingField.ts
@@ -16,7 +16,12 @@ import {
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldHelpers.js'
 import { NumberField } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/NumberField.js'
 import { createLowerFirstExpression } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/index.js'
-import { type EastingNorthingState } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
+import {
+  type EastingNorthingState,
+  type RenderContext
+} from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
+import { t as tPlugin } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/index.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { messageTemplate } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.js'
 import {
   type ErrorMessageTemplateList,
@@ -55,18 +60,47 @@ export class EastingNorthingField extends FormComponent {
     const northingMin = schema?.northing?.min ?? DEFAULT_NORTHING_MIN
     const northingMax = schema?.northing?.max ?? DEFAULT_NORTHING_MAX
 
-    const eastingRequired = 'Enter easting'
-    const northingRequired = 'Enter northing'
+    const fieldLabel = lowerFirst(this.label)
 
-    const eastingDigitsMessage = `{{#label}} for ${lowerFirst(this.label)} must be between 1 and 6 digits`
-    const northingDigitsMessage = `{{#label}} for ${lowerFirst(this.label)} must be between 1 and 7 digits`
+    const eastingDigitsMessage = tPlugin(
+      'components.eastingNorthingField.eastingDigits',
+      'en-GB',
+      { fieldLabel }
+    )
+    const northingDigitsMessage = tPlugin(
+      'components.eastingNorthingField.northingDigits',
+      'en-GB',
+      { fieldLabel }
+    )
 
     const customValidationMessages: LanguageMessages =
       convertToLanguageMessages({
-        'any.required': eastingRequired,
-        'number.base': eastingRequired,
-        'number.min': `{{#label}} for ${lowerFirst(this.label)} must be between {{#limit}} and ${eastingMax}`,
-        'number.max': `{{#label}} for ${lowerFirst(this.label)} must be between ${eastingMin} and {{#limit}}`,
+        'any.required': tPlugin(
+          'components.eastingNorthingField.eastingRequired',
+          'en-GB'
+        ),
+        'number.base': tPlugin(
+          'components.eastingNorthingField.eastingRequired',
+          'en-GB'
+        ),
+        'number.min': tPlugin(
+          'components.eastingNorthingField.eastingRange',
+          'en-GB',
+          {
+            fieldLabel,
+            min: eastingMin,
+            max: eastingMax
+          }
+        ),
+        'number.max': tPlugin(
+          'components.eastingNorthingField.eastingRange',
+          'en-GB',
+          {
+            fieldLabel,
+            min: eastingMin,
+            max: eastingMax
+          }
+        ),
         'number.precision': eastingDigitsMessage,
         'number.integer': eastingDigitsMessage,
         'number.unsafe': eastingDigitsMessage
@@ -74,10 +108,32 @@ export class EastingNorthingField extends FormComponent {
 
     const northingValidationMessages: LanguageMessages =
       convertToLanguageMessages({
-        'any.required': northingRequired,
-        'number.base': northingRequired,
-        'number.min': `{{#label}} for ${lowerFirst(this.label)} must be between {{#limit}} and ${northingMax}`,
-        'number.max': `{{#label}} for ${lowerFirst(this.label)} must be between ${northingMin} and {{#limit}}`,
+        'any.required': tPlugin(
+          'components.eastingNorthingField.northingRequired',
+          'en-GB'
+        ),
+        'number.base': tPlugin(
+          'components.eastingNorthingField.northingRequired',
+          'en-GB'
+        ),
+        'number.min': tPlugin(
+          'components.eastingNorthingField.northingRange',
+          'en-GB',
+          {
+            fieldLabel,
+            min: northingMin,
+            max: northingMax
+          }
+        ),
+        'number.max': tPlugin(
+          'components.eastingNorthingField.northingRange',
+          'en-GB',
+          {
+            fieldLabel,
+            min: northingMin,
+            max: northingMax
+          }
+        ),
         'number.precision': northingDigitsMessage,
         'number.integer': northingDigitsMessage,
         'number.unsafe': northingDigitsMessage
@@ -88,7 +144,7 @@ export class EastingNorthingField extends FormComponent {
         {
           type: ComponentType.NumberField,
           name: `${name}__easting`,
-          title: 'Easting',
+          title: 'components.eastingNorthingField.easting',
           schema: {
             min: eastingMin,
             max: eastingMax,
@@ -104,7 +160,7 @@ export class EastingNorthingField extends FormComponent {
         {
           type: ComponentType.NumberField,
           name: `${name}__northing`,
-          title: 'Northing',
+          title: 'components.eastingNorthingField.northing',
           schema: {
             min: northingMin,
             max: northingMax,
@@ -135,7 +191,8 @@ export class EastingNorthingField extends FormComponent {
   }
 
   getDisplayStringFromFormValue(
-    value: EastingNorthingState | undefined
+    value: EastingNorthingState | undefined,
+    _translator: Translator
   ): string {
     if (!value) {
       return ''
@@ -145,10 +202,13 @@ export class EastingNorthingField extends FormComponent {
     return `${value.easting}, ${value.northing}`
   }
 
-  getDisplayStringFromState(state: FormSubmissionState) {
+  getDisplayStringFromState(
+    state: FormSubmissionState,
+    translator: Translator
+  ) {
     const value = this.getFormValueFromState(state)
 
-    return this.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(value)
+    return this.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(value, translator)
   }
 
   getContextValueFromFormValue(
@@ -167,15 +227,16 @@ export class EastingNorthingField extends FormComponent {
     return this.getContextValueFromFormValue(value)
   }
 
-  getViewModel(payload: FormPayload, errors?: FormSubmissionError[]) {
-    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(payload, errors)
-    return getLocationFieldViewModel(this, viewModel, payload, errors)
+  getViewModel(context: RenderContext) {
+    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(context)
+    return getLocationFieldViewModel(this, viewModel, context)
   }
 
   getViewErrors(
+    translator: Translator,
     errors?: FormSubmissionError[]
   ): FormSubmissionError[] | undefined {
-    const allErrors = this.getErrors(errors)
+    const allErrors = this.getErrors(translator, errors)
     return deduplicateErrorsByHref(allErrors)
   }
 
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/EmailAddressField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/EmailAddressField.test.ts
index 580c1bac9..01284e965 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/EmailAddressField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/EmailAddressField.test.ts
@@ -9,9 +9,14 @@ import {
   type Field
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 import { getFormData, getFormState } from '~/test/helpers/component-helpers.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe('EmailAddressField', () => {
   let model: FormModel
 
@@ -154,8 +159,8 @@ describe('EmailAddressField', () => {
         const state1 = getFormState('defra.helpline@defra.gov.uk')
         const state2 = getFormState(null)
 
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, translator)
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, translator)
 
         expect(answer1).toBe('defra.helpline@defra.gov.uk')
         expect(answer2).toBe('')
@@ -208,9 +213,11 @@ describe('EmailAddressField', () => {
 
     describe('View model', () => {
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults', () => {
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(
-          getFormData('defra.helpline@defra.gov.uk')
-        )
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData('defra.helpline@defra.gov.uk'),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/EmailAddressField.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/EmailAddressField.ts
index 795e4e9c1..4780f1919 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/EmailAddressField.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/EmailAddressField.ts
@@ -5,12 +5,9 @@ import {
 import joi, { type CustomHelpers } from 'joi'
 
 import { FormComponent } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FormComponent.js'
+import { type RenderContext } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
 import { messageTemplate } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.js'
-import {
-  type ErrorMessageTemplateList,
-  type FormPayload,
-  type FormSubmissionError
-} from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
+import { type ErrorMessageTemplateList } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 
 export class EmailAddressField extends FormComponent {
   declare options: EmailAddressFieldComponent['options']
@@ -54,8 +51,8 @@ export class EmailAddressField extends FormComponent {
     this.options = options
   }
 
-  getViewModel(payload: FormPayload, errors?: FormSubmissionError[]) {
-    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+  getViewModel(context: RenderContext) {
+    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(context)
     const { attributes } = viewModel
 
     attributes.autocomplete = 'email'
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FileUploadField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FileUploadField.test.ts
index 8d36772f3..2886b39bf 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FileUploadField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FileUploadField.test.ts
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@ import {
   type Field
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import { InvalidComponentStateError } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/errors.js'
 import {
   createPage,
@@ -324,10 +325,14 @@ describe('FileUploadField', () => {
         const state1 = getFormState(validState)
         const state2 = getFormState(null)
 
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, stubTranslator, {
+          format: 'summary'
+        })
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, stubTranslator, {
+          format: 'summary'
+        })
 
-        expect(answer1).toBe('Uploaded 3 files')
+        expect(answer1).toBe('3 files uploaded')
         expect(answer2).toBe('')
       })
 
@@ -382,7 +387,11 @@ describe('FileUploadField', () => {
 
     describe('View model', () => {
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults', () => {
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData(validState))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData(validState),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -461,13 +470,12 @@ describe('FileUploadField', () => {
       })
 
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults (preview URL direct access)', () => {
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(
-          getFormData(validState),
-          undefined,
-
-          // Preview URL '?force'
-          { force: '' }
-        )
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData(validState),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator,
+          isForceAccess: true
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -521,7 +529,11 @@ describe('FileUploadField', () => {
       })
 
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults with temp valid state', () => {
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData(validTempState))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData(validTempState),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -562,7 +574,11 @@ describe('FileUploadField', () => {
       })
 
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults with temp valid state with errors (on POST)', () => {
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData(validTempState), [])
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData(validTempState),
+          errors: [],
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -892,13 +908,23 @@ describe('FileUploadField', () => {
 
       // Mock request
       mockRequest = {
+        server: { plugins: { 'forms-engine-plugin': {} } },
         app: {
           model: {
             services: {
               formSubmissionService: {
                 persistFiles: mockPersistFiles
               }
-            }
+            },
+            createTranslator: () => ({
+              t: jest.fn((k: string) => k),
+              tPage: jest.fn(),
+              tComponent: jest.fn(),
+              tSection: jest.fn(),
+              tListItem: jest.fn(),
+              tForm: jest.fn(),
+              language: 'en-GB'
+            })
           }
         }
       } as unknown as FormRequestPayload
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FileUploadField.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FileUploadField.ts
index 3a5ce729a..e982bb2ed 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FileUploadField.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FileUploadField.ts
@@ -9,6 +9,8 @@ import {
   FormComponent,
   isUploadState
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FormComponent.js'
+import { type RenderContext } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { InvalidComponentStateError } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/errors.js'
 import { messageTemplate } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.js'
 import {
@@ -19,10 +21,8 @@ import {
   type FileUpload,
   type FileUploadMetadata,
   type FormContext,
-  type FormPayload,
   type FormState,
   type FormStateValue,
-  type FormSubmissionError,
   type FormSubmissionState,
   type SummaryList,
   type SummaryListAction,
@@ -32,10 +32,8 @@ import {
   type UploadStatusResponse
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 import { render } from '~/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/index.js'
-import {
-  type FormQuery,
-  type FormRequestPayload
-} from '~/src/server/routes/types.js'
+import { type FormRequestPayload } from '~/src/server/routes/types.js'
+import { resolveLanguage } from '~/src/server/utils/utils.js'
 
 export const uploadIdSchema = joi.string().uuid().required()
 
@@ -163,19 +161,26 @@ export class FileUploadField extends FormComponent {
     return this.isValue(value) ? value : undefined
   }
 
-  getDisplayStringFromFormValue(files: FileState[] | undefined): string {
+  getDisplayStringFromFormValue(
+    files: FileState[] | undefined,
+    translator: Translator
+  ): string {
     if (!files?.length) {
       return ''
     }
 
-    const unit = files.length === 1 ? 'file' : 'files'
-    return `Uploaded ${files.length} ${unit}`
+    return translator.t('components.fileUploadField.filesCount', {
+      count: files.length
+    })
   }
 
-  getDisplayStringFromState(state: FormSubmissionState) {
+  getDisplayStringFromState(
+    state: FormSubmissionState,
+    translator: Translator
+  ) {
     const files = this.getFormValueFromState(state)
 
-    return this.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(files)
+    return this.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(files, translator)
   }
 
   getContextValueFromFormValue(
@@ -189,17 +194,12 @@ export class FileUploadField extends FormComponent {
     return this.getContextValueFromFormValue(files)
   }
 
-  getViewModel(
-    payload: FormPayload,
-    errors?: FormSubmissionError[],
-    query: FormQuery = {}
-  ) {
+  getViewModel(context: RenderContext) {
+    const { errors, isForceAccess = false } = context
+    const { t } = context.translator
     const { options, page, schema } = this
 
-    // Allow preview URL direct access
-    const isForceAccess = 'force' in query
-
-    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(context)
     const { attributes, id, value } = viewModel
 
     const files = this.getFormValue(value) ?? []
@@ -213,7 +213,10 @@ export class FileUploadField extends FormComponent {
       const { form } = status
       const { file } = form
 
-      const tag = { classes: 'govuk-tag--green', text: 'Uploaded' }
+      const tag = {
+        classes: 'govuk-tag--green',
+        text: t('components.fileUploadField.uploaded')
+      }
 
       const valueHtml = render
         .view('components/fileuploadfield-value.html', {
@@ -309,6 +312,9 @@ export class FileUploadField extends FormComponent {
     metadata: FormMetadata,
     context: FormContext
   ) {
+    const language = resolveLanguage(request, metadata)
+    const { t } = this.model.createTranslator(language)
+
     const notificationEmail = metadata.notificationEmail
 
     if (!notificationEmail) {
@@ -347,7 +353,7 @@ export class FileUploadField extends FormComponent {
         // Scenarios: file missing from S3, invalid retrieval key (timing problem), etc.
         throw new InvalidComponentStateError(
           this,
-          'There was a problem with your uploaded files. Re-upload them before submitting the form again.'
+          t('components.fileUploadField.uploadFailed')
         )
       }
 
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FormComponent.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FormComponent.ts
index 3cf7c288f..19d2aafca 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FormComponent.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FormComponent.ts
@@ -1,11 +1,14 @@
 import {
+  type ComponentDef,
   type FormComponentsDef,
   type FormMetadata,
   type Item
 } from '@defra/forms-model'
+import { type LanguageMessages } from 'joi'
 
 import { ComponentBase } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/ComponentBase.js'
-import { optionalText } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/constants.js'
+import { type RenderContext } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import {
   type FormContext,
   type FormRequestPayload
@@ -115,7 +118,10 @@ export class FormComponent extends ComponentBase {
     }
   }
 
-  getErrors(errors?: FormSubmissionError[]): FormSubmissionError[] | undefined {
+  getErrors(
+    _translator: Translator,
+    errors?: FormSubmissionError[]
+  ): FormSubmissionError[] | undefined {
     const { name } = this
 
     // Filter component and child errors only
@@ -134,34 +140,59 @@ export class FormComponent extends ComponentBase {
   }
 
   getFirstError(
+    translator: Translator,
     errors?: FormSubmissionError[]
   ): FormSubmissionError | undefined {
-    return this.getErrors(errors)?.[0]
+    return this.getErrors(translator, errors)?.[0]
   }
 
   getViewErrors(
+    translator: Translator,
     errors?: FormSubmissionError[]
   ): FormSubmissionError[] | undefined {
-    const firstError = this.getFirstError(errors)
+    const firstError = this.getFirstError(translator, errors)
     return firstError && [firstError]
   }
 
-  getViewModel(payload: FormPayload, errors?: FormSubmissionError[]) {
+  /**
+   * Override in composite fields to return translated Joi message overrides for
+   * their sub-fields, applied at validation time so schema-level English messages
+   * are replaced with the correct language. Return null to skip message patching.
+   */
+  getValidationMessagesOverride(
+    _translator: Translator
+  ): LanguageMessages | null {
+    return null
+  }
+
+  getViewModel({
+    payload,
+    errors,
+    translator,
+    isForceAccess: _isForceAccess = false
+  }: RenderContext) {
     const { hint, name, options = {}, title, viewModel } = this
 
+    const { t, tComponent } = translator
+
     const isRequired = !('required' in options) || options.required !== false
     const hideOptional = 'optionalText' in options && options.optionalText
-    const label = `${title}${!isRequired && !hideOptional ? optionalText : ''}`
+
+    const resolvedTitle =
+      tComponent(this as unknown as ComponentDef, 'title') || title
+    const optionalTag =
+      !isRequired && !hideOptional ? ` ${t('common.optional')}` : ''
+    const label = `${resolvedTitle}${optionalTag}`
 
     if (hint) {
       viewModel.hint = {
-        text: hint
+        text: tComponent(this as unknown as ComponentDef, 'hint') || hint
       }
     }
 
     // Filter component errors only
-    const componentErrors = this.getErrors(errors)
-    const componentError = this.getFirstError(componentErrors)
+    const componentErrors = this.getErrors(translator, errors)
+    const componentError = this.getFirstError(translator, componentErrors)
 
     if (componentErrors) {
       viewModel.errors = componentErrors
@@ -184,15 +215,21 @@ export class FormComponent extends ComponentBase {
     }
   }
 
-  getDisplayStringFromFormValue(value: FormValue | FormPayload): string {
+  getDisplayStringFromFormValue(
+    value: FormValue | FormPayload,
+    _translator: Translator
+  ): string {
     // Map selected values to text
     // eslint-disable-next-line @typescript-eslint/no-base-to-string
     return this.isValue(value) ? value.toString() : ''
   }
 
-  getDisplayStringFromState(state: FormSubmissionState): string {
+  getDisplayStringFromState(
+    state: FormSubmissionState,
+    translator: Translator
+  ): string {
     const value = this.getFormValueFromState(state)
-    return this.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(value)
+    return this.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(value, translator)
   }
 
   getContextValueFromFormValue(
@@ -256,6 +293,19 @@ export class FormComponent extends ComponentBase {
   }
 }
 
+/**
+ * Type guard — returns true when the value is a Translator (has t and tComponent functions),
+ * as opposed to a FormQuery (plain string-keyed record).
+ */
+export function isTranslator(value: unknown): value is Translator {
+  return (
+    typeof value === 'object' &&
+    value !== null &&
+    typeof (value as Record<string, unknown>).t === 'function' &&
+    typeof (value as Record<string, unknown>).tComponent === 'function'
+  )
+}
+
 /**
  * Check for form value
  */
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/GeospatialField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/GeospatialField.test.ts
index 0a6c9e67e..cf1b3e184 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/GeospatialField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/GeospatialField.test.ts
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 import {
   ComponentType,
+  type ComponentDef,
   type GeospatialFieldComponent
 } from '@defra/forms-model'
 
@@ -14,10 +15,15 @@ import {
   type Field
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import { type GeospatialState } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 import { getFormData, getFormState } from '~/test/helpers/component-helpers.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe('GeospatialField', () => {
   let model: FormModel
 
@@ -150,8 +156,12 @@ describe('GeospatialField', () => {
         const state1 = getFormState(validSingleState)
         const state2 = getFormState(null)
 
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, stubTranslator, {
+          format: 'summary'
+        })
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, stubTranslator, {
+          format: 'summary'
+        })
 
         expect(answer1).toBe('Added 1 location')
         expect(answer2).toBe('')
@@ -161,8 +171,12 @@ describe('GeospatialField', () => {
         const state1 = getFormState(validState)
         const state2 = getFormState(null)
 
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, stubTranslator, {
+          format: 'summary'
+        })
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, stubTranslator, {
+          format: 'summary'
+        })
 
         expect(answer1).toBe('Added 4 locations')
         expect(answer2).toBe('')
@@ -220,7 +234,11 @@ describe('GeospatialField', () => {
 
     describe('View model', () => {
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults', () => {
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData('Geospatial'))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData('Geospatial'),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -261,7 +279,7 @@ describe('GeospatialField', () => {
               value: getFormData([]),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Define at least 1 features'
+                  text: 'validation.features.min' // 'Define at least 1 features'
                 })
               ]
             }
@@ -311,7 +329,7 @@ describe('GeospatialField', () => {
               value: getFormData([]),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Define at least 2 features'
+                  text: 'validation.features.min' // 'Define at least 2 features'
                 })
               ]
             }
@@ -333,7 +351,7 @@ describe('GeospatialField', () => {
               value: getFormData(validSingleState),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Define at least 2 features'
+                  text: 'validation.features.min' // 'Define at least 2 features'
                 })
               ]
             }
@@ -366,7 +384,7 @@ describe('GeospatialField', () => {
               value: getFormData([]),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Define at least 1 features'
+                  text: 'validation.features.min' // 'Define at least 1 features'
                 })
               ]
             }
@@ -394,7 +412,7 @@ describe('GeospatialField', () => {
               value: getFormData(validState),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Only 1 features can be defined'
+                  text: 'validation.features.max' // 'Only 1 features can be defined'
                 })
               ]
             }
@@ -421,7 +439,7 @@ describe('GeospatialField', () => {
               value: getFormData([]),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Define exactly 1 features'
+                  text: 'validation.features.length' // 'Define exactly 1 features'
                 })
               ]
             }
@@ -449,7 +467,7 @@ describe('GeospatialField', () => {
               value: getFormData(validState),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Define exactly 1 features'
+                  text: 'validation.features.length' // 'Define exactly 1 features'
                 })
               ]
             }
@@ -495,7 +513,7 @@ describe('GeospatialField', () => {
               value: getFormData([]),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Define at least 2 features'
+                  text: 'validation.features.min' // 'Define at least 2 features'
                 })
               ]
             }
@@ -512,7 +530,7 @@ describe('GeospatialField', () => {
               value: getFormData(validSingleState),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Define at least 2 features'
+                  text: 'validation.features.min' // 'Define at least 2 features'
                 })
               ]
             }
@@ -563,7 +581,7 @@ describe('GeospatialField', () => {
               value: getFormData(validState),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Only 1 features can be defined'
+                  text: 'validation.features.max' // 'Only 1 features can be defined'
                 })
               ]
             }
@@ -590,7 +608,7 @@ describe('GeospatialField', () => {
               value: getFormData([]),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Define exactly 1 features'
+                  text: 'validation.features.length' // 'Define exactly 1 features'
                 })
               ]
             }
@@ -613,7 +631,7 @@ describe('GeospatialField', () => {
               value: getFormData(validState),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Define exactly 1 features'
+                  text: 'validation.features.length' // Define exactly 1 features
                 })
               ]
             }
@@ -666,7 +684,7 @@ describe('GeospatialField', () => {
       const result = collection.validate(getFormData(invalidSingleState))
       const geospatialField = collection.components.at(0) as GeospatialField
 
-      const errors = geospatialField.getErrors(result.errors)
+      const errors = geospatialField.getErrors(translator, result.errors)
       expect(errors).toEqual([
         expect.objectContaining({
           name: 'description',
@@ -704,15 +722,73 @@ describe('GeospatialField', () => {
         }
       ]
 
+      const mockT = jest.fn().mockReturnValue('translated country error')
+      const mockTranslator = { ...stubTranslator, t: mockT }
+
       const result = collection.validate(getFormData(invalidSingleState))
       const geospatialField = collection.components.at(0) as GeospatialField
 
-      const errors = geospatialField.getErrors(result.errors)
-      expect(errors).toEqual([
+      const viewErrors = geospatialField.getViewErrors(
+        mockTranslator,
+        result.errors
+      )
+
+      expect(mockT).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
+        'components.geospatialField.validation.wrongCountry',
+        { count: 1, country: 'Scotland' }
+      )
+      expect(viewErrors).toEqual([
+        expect.objectContaining({
+          href: '#description_0',
+          text: 'translated country error'
+        })
+      ])
+    })
+
+    it('getViewErrors uses translator for description error text', () => {
+      const component = {
+        title: 'Example geospatial field',
+        name: 'myComponent',
+        type: ComponentType.GeospatialField,
+        options: { required: true }
+      } as unknown as ComponentDef
+
+      const collection = new ComponentCollection([component], { model })
+      const invalidSingleState: GeospatialState = [
+        {
+          type: 'Feature',
+          properties: {
+            coordinateGridReference: 'ST 00001',
+            centroidGridReference: 'ST 00001',
+            description: ''
+          },
+          geometry: {
+            coordinates: [-2.5723699109417737, 53.2380485215034],
+            type: 'Point'
+          },
+          id: 'a'
+        }
+      ]
+
+      const mockT = jest.fn().mockReturnValue('translated description error')
+      const mockTranslator = { ...stubTranslator, t: mockT }
+
+      const result = collection.validate(getFormData(invalidSingleState))
+      const geospatialField = collection.components.at(0) as GeospatialField
+
+      const viewErrors = geospatialField.getViewErrors(
+        mockTranslator,
+        result.errors
+      )
+
+      expect(mockT).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
+        'components.geospatialField.validation.descriptionRequired',
+        { count: 1 }
+      )
+      expect(viewErrors).toEqual([
         expect.objectContaining({
-          name: 0,
           href: '#description_0',
-          text: 'Location 1 must be in Scotland'
+          text: 'translated description error'
         })
       ])
     })
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/GeospatialField.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/GeospatialField.ts
index b7ea33415..c8a353b9b 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/GeospatialField.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/GeospatialField.ts
@@ -7,10 +7,11 @@ import {
   isGeospatialState
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FormComponent.js'
 import { getGeospatialSchema } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/geospatial.js'
+import { type RenderContext } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { messageTemplate } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.js'
 import {
   type ErrorMessageTemplateList,
-  type FormPayload,
   type FormState,
   type FormStateValue,
   type FormSubmissionError,
@@ -31,13 +32,11 @@ export class GeospatialField extends FormComponent {
 
     const { options } = def
 
-    const formSchema = getGeospatialSchema(def)
-      .label(this.label)
-      .messages({
-        'array.min': messageTemplate.featuresMin as string,
-        'array.max': messageTemplate.featuresMax as string,
-        'array.length': messageTemplate.featuresLength as string
-      })
+    const formSchema = getGeospatialSchema(def).label(this.label).messages({
+      'array.min': messageTemplate.featuresMin,
+      'array.max': messageTemplate.featuresMax,
+      'array.length': messageTemplate.featuresLength
+    })
 
     this.formSchema = formSchema
     this.stateSchema = formSchema.default(null)
@@ -58,20 +57,26 @@ export class GeospatialField extends FormComponent {
     return this.isValue(value) ? value : undefined
   }
 
-  getDisplayStringFromFormValue(features: GeospatialState | undefined): string {
+  getDisplayStringFromFormValue(
+    features: GeospatialState | undefined,
+    translator: Translator
+  ): string {
     if (!features?.length) {
       return ''
     }
 
-    const unit = features.length === 1 ? 'location' : 'locations'
-
-    return `Added ${features.length} ${unit}`
+    return translator.t('components.geospatialField.added', {
+      count: features.length
+    })
   }
 
-  getDisplayStringFromState(state: FormSubmissionState) {
+  getDisplayStringFromState(
+    state: FormSubmissionState,
+    translator: Translator
+  ) {
     const features = this.getFormValueFromState(state)
 
-    return this.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(features)
+    return this.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(features, translator)
   }
 
   getContextValueFromFormValue(
@@ -86,8 +91,8 @@ export class GeospatialField extends FormComponent {
     return this.getContextValueFromFormValue(features)
   }
 
-  getViewModel(payload: FormPayload, errors?: FormSubmissionError[]) {
-    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+  getViewModel(context: RenderContext) {
+    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(context)
     const value =
       typeof viewModel.value === 'string'
         ? viewModel.value
@@ -101,16 +106,25 @@ export class GeospatialField extends FormComponent {
     }
   }
 
-  getErrors(errors?: FormSubmissionError[]): FormSubmissionError[] | undefined {
-    const fieldErrors = super.getErrors(errors)
+  getErrors(
+    translator: Translator,
+    errors?: FormSubmissionError[]
+  ): FormSubmissionError[] | undefined {
+    const fieldErrors = super.getErrors(translator, errors)
 
     fieldErrors?.forEach((err) => {
       if (err.name === 'description') {
         err.href = `#description_${err.path[1]}`
-        err.text = `Enter description for location ${Number(err.path[1]) + 1}`
+        err.text = translator.t(
+          'components.geospatialField.validation.descriptionRequired',
+          { count: Number(err.path[1]) + 1 }
+        )
       } else if (typeof err.name === 'number' && err.context?.country) {
         err.href = `#description_${err.path[1]}`
-        err.text = `Location ${Number(err.path[1]) + 1} must be in ${err.context.country}`
+        err.text = translator.t(
+          'components.geospatialField.validation.wrongCountry',
+          { count: Number(err.path[1]) + 1, country: err.context.country }
+        )
       }
     })
 
@@ -118,9 +132,10 @@ export class GeospatialField extends FormComponent {
   }
 
   getViewErrors(
+    translator: Translator,
     errors?: FormSubmissionError[]
   ): FormSubmissionError[] | undefined {
-    return this.getErrors(errors)
+    return this.getErrors(translator, errors)
   }
 
   isValue(value?: FormStateValue | FormState): value is GeospatialState {
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/HiddenField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/HiddenField.test.ts
index bf02c3802..77fa8cc17 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/HiddenField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/HiddenField.test.ts
@@ -6,9 +6,14 @@ import {
   type Field
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 import { getFormData, getFormState } from '~/test/helpers/component-helpers.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe('HiddenField', () => {
   let model: FormModel
 
@@ -110,8 +115,8 @@ describe('HiddenField', () => {
         const state1 = getFormState('Hidden field')
         const state2 = getFormState(null)
 
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, translator)
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, translator)
 
         expect(answer1).toBe('Hidden field')
         expect(answer2).toBe('')
@@ -164,7 +169,11 @@ describe('HiddenField', () => {
 
     describe('View model', () => {
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults', () => {
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData('Hidden field'))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData('Hidden field'),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LatLongField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LatLongField.test.ts
index 70bb2e875..a4a56c807 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LatLongField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LatLongField.test.ts
@@ -7,9 +7,14 @@ import {
   type Field
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import { type FormSubmissionError } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe('LatLongField', () => {
   let model: FormModel
 
@@ -46,14 +51,20 @@ describe('LatLongField', () => {
         expect(keys).toHaveProperty(
           'myComponent__latitude',
           expect.objectContaining({
-            flags: expect.objectContaining({ label: 'Latitude' })
+            flags: expect.objectContaining({
+              label: 'components.latLongField.latitude'
+            })
+            // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
           })
         )
 
         expect(keys).toHaveProperty(
           'myComponent__longitude',
           expect.objectContaining({
-            flags: expect.objectContaining({ label: 'Longitude' })
+            flags: expect.objectContaining({
+              label: 'components.latLongField.longitude'
+            })
+            // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
           })
         )
       })
@@ -191,8 +202,8 @@ describe('LatLongField', () => {
         })
         const state2 = getFormState({})
 
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, translator)
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, translator)
 
         expect(answer1).toBe('Latitude: 51.51945<br>Longitude: -0.127758<br>')
         expect(answer2).toBe('')
@@ -275,7 +286,11 @@ describe('LatLongField', () => {
           latitude: 51.51945,
           longitude: -0.127758
         })
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload)
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload,
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -287,13 +302,19 @@ describe('LatLongField', () => {
             },
             items: [
               expect.objectContaining({
-                label: expect.objectContaining({ text: 'Latitude' }),
+                label: expect.objectContaining({
+                  text: 'Latitude'
+                }),
+                // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                 name: 'myComponent__latitude',
                 id: 'myComponent__latitude',
                 value: 51.51945
               }),
               expect.objectContaining({
-                label: expect.objectContaining({ text: 'Longitude' }),
+                label: expect.objectContaining({
+                  text: 'Longitude'
+                }),
+                // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                 name: 'myComponent__longitude',
                 id: 'myComponent__longitude',
                 value: -0.127758
@@ -312,12 +333,14 @@ describe('LatLongField', () => {
           { model }
         )
 
-        const viewModel = componentWithInstruction.getViewModel(
-          getFormData({
+        const viewModel = componentWithInstruction.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData({
             latitude: 51.51945,
             longitude: -0.127758
-          })
-        )
+          }),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         const instructionText =
           'instructionText' in viewModel ? viewModel.instructionText : undefined
@@ -340,7 +363,11 @@ describe('LatLongField', () => {
           }
         ]
 
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload,
+          errors,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         // Check that error is passed to the viewModel
         expect(viewModel.errors).toEqual(errors)
@@ -377,7 +404,7 @@ describe('LatLongField', () => {
           }
         ]
 
-        const viewErrors = field.getViewErrors(errors)
+        const viewErrors = field.getViewErrors(translator, errors)
 
         expect(viewErrors).toHaveLength(2)
         expect(viewErrors).toEqual([
@@ -436,6 +463,16 @@ describe('LatLongField', () => {
         )
       })
     })
+
+    describe('sub-field title key constants', () => {
+      it('stores sub-field titles as i18next key constants', () => {
+        const locationField = collection.fields[0] as LatLongField
+        const subFields = locationField.collection.fields
+
+        expect(subFields[0].title).toBe('components.latLongField.latitude')
+        expect(subFields[1].title).toBe('components.latLongField.longitude')
+      })
+    })
   })
 
   describe('Validation', () => {
@@ -602,7 +639,8 @@ describe('LatLongField', () => {
               }),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Latitude must have no more than 7 decimal places'
+                  text: 'components.latLongField.latitude must have no more than 7 decimal places'
+                  // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                 })
               ]
             }
@@ -619,7 +657,8 @@ describe('LatLongField', () => {
               }),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Longitude must have no more than 7 decimal places'
+                  text: 'components.latLongField.longitude must have no more than 7 decimal places'
+                  // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                 })
               ]
             }
@@ -697,7 +736,8 @@ describe('LatLongField', () => {
               }),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Latitude must have no more than 7 decimal places'
+                  text: 'components.latLongField.latitude must have no more than 7 decimal places'
+                  // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                 })
               ]
             }
@@ -727,7 +767,8 @@ describe('LatLongField', () => {
               }),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Longitude must have no more than 7 decimal places'
+                  text: 'components.latLongField.longitude must have no more than 7 decimal places'
+                  // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                 })
               ]
             }
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LatLongField.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LatLongField.ts
index 0fe4c6f14..91449777f 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LatLongField.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LatLongField.ts
@@ -13,7 +13,12 @@ import {
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldHelpers.js'
 import { NumberField } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/NumberField.js'
 import { createLowerFirstExpression } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/index.js'
-import { type LatLongState } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
+import {
+  type LatLongState,
+  type RenderContext
+} from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
+import { t as tPlugin } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/index.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { messageTemplate } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.js'
 import {
   type ErrorMessageTemplateList,
@@ -51,31 +56,50 @@ export class LatLongField extends FormComponent {
     const longitudeMin = schema?.longitude?.min ?? -13.687
     const longitudeMax = schema?.longitude?.max ?? 1.767
 
-    const latitudeRequired = 'Enter latitude'
-    const longitudeRequired = 'Enter longitude'
+    const fieldLabel = lowerFirst(this.label)
 
     const customValidationMessages: LanguageMessages =
       convertToLanguageMessages({
-        'number.precision':
-          '{{#label}} must have no more than 7 decimal places',
-        'number.unsafe': '{{#label}} must be a valid number'
+        'number.precision': tPlugin(
+          'components.latLongField.precision',
+          'en-GB'
+        ),
+        'number.unsafe': tPlugin('components.latLongField.notANumber', 'en-GB')
       })
 
-    const latitudeRangeMessage = `Latitude for ${lowerFirst(this.label)} must be between ${latitudeMin} and ${latitudeMax}`
-    const longitudeRangeMessage = `Longitude for ${lowerFirst(this.label)} must be between ${longitudeMin} and ${longitudeMax}`
+    const latitudeRangeMessage = tPlugin(
+      'components.latLongField.latitudeRange',
+      'en-GB',
+      { fieldLabel, min: latitudeMin, max: latitudeMax }
+    )
+    const longitudeRangeMessage = tPlugin(
+      'components.latLongField.longitudeRange',
+      'en-GB',
+      { fieldLabel, min: longitudeMin, max: longitudeMax }
+    )
 
     const latitudeMessages: LanguageMessages = convertToLanguageMessages({
       ...customValidationMessages,
-      'any.required': latitudeRequired,
-      'number.base': `Enter a valid latitude for ${lowerFirst(this.label)} like 51.519450`,
+      'any.required': tPlugin(
+        'components.latLongField.latitudeRequired',
+        'en-GB'
+      ),
+      'number.base': tPlugin('components.latLongField.latitudeBase', 'en-GB', {
+        fieldLabel
+      }),
       'number.min': latitudeRangeMessage,
       'number.max': latitudeRangeMessage
     })
 
     const longitudeMessages: LanguageMessages = convertToLanguageMessages({
       ...customValidationMessages,
-      'any.required': longitudeRequired,
-      'number.base': `Enter a valid longitude for ${lowerFirst(this.label)} like -0.127758`,
+      'any.required': tPlugin(
+        'components.latLongField.longitudeRequired',
+        'en-GB'
+      ),
+      'number.base': tPlugin('components.latLongField.longitudeBase', 'en-GB', {
+        fieldLabel
+      }),
       'number.min': longitudeRangeMessage,
       'number.max': longitudeRangeMessage
     })
@@ -85,7 +109,7 @@ export class LatLongField extends FormComponent {
         {
           type: ComponentType.NumberField,
           name: `${name}__latitude`,
-          title: 'Latitude',
+          title: 'components.latLongField.latitude',
           schema: {
             min: latitudeMin,
             max: latitudeMax,
@@ -102,7 +126,7 @@ export class LatLongField extends FormComponent {
         {
           type: ComponentType.NumberField,
           name: `${name}__longitude`,
-          title: 'Longitude',
+          title: 'components.latLongField.longitude',
           schema: {
             min: longitudeMin,
             max: longitudeMax,
@@ -133,7 +157,10 @@ export class LatLongField extends FormComponent {
     return LatLongField.isLatLong(value) ? value : undefined
   }
 
-  getDisplayStringFromFormValue(value: LatLongState | undefined): string {
+  getDisplayStringFromFormValue(
+    value: LatLongState | undefined,
+    _translator: Translator
+  ): string {
     if (!value) {
       return ''
     }
@@ -142,10 +169,13 @@ export class LatLongField extends FormComponent {
     return `${value.latitude}, ${value.longitude}`
   }
 
-  getDisplayStringFromState(state: FormSubmissionState) {
+  getDisplayStringFromState(
+    state: FormSubmissionState,
+    translator: Translator
+  ) {
     const value = this.getFormValueFromState(state)
 
-    return this.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(value)
+    return this.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(value, translator)
   }
 
   getContextValueFromFormValue(value: LatLongState | undefined): string | null {
@@ -163,15 +193,16 @@ export class LatLongField extends FormComponent {
     return this.getContextValueFromFormValue(value)
   }
 
-  getViewModel(payload: FormPayload, errors?: FormSubmissionError[]) {
-    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(payload, errors)
-    return getLocationFieldViewModel(this, viewModel, payload, errors)
+  getViewModel(context: RenderContext) {
+    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(context)
+    return getLocationFieldViewModel(this, viewModel, context)
   }
 
   getViewErrors(
+    translator: Translator,
     errors?: FormSubmissionError[]
   ): FormSubmissionError[] | undefined {
-    const allErrors = this.getErrors(errors)
+    const allErrors = this.getErrors(translator, errors)
     return deduplicateErrorsByHref(allErrors)
   }
 
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/ListFormComponent.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/ListFormComponent.ts
index 3d8b91db1..dd2ec323e 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/ListFormComponent.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/ListFormComponent.ts
@@ -13,12 +13,14 @@ import joi, {
 } from 'joi'
 
 import { FormComponent } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FormComponent.js'
-import { type ListItem } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
+import {
+  type ListItem,
+  type RenderContext
+} from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { messageTemplate } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.js'
 import {
   type ErrorMessageTemplateList,
-  type FormPayload,
-  type FormSubmissionError,
   type FormSubmissionState
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 
@@ -100,7 +102,8 @@ export class ListFormComponent extends FormComponent {
   }
 
   getDisplayStringFromFormValue(
-    value: string | number | boolean | Item['value'][] | undefined
+    value: string | number | boolean | Item['value'][] | undefined,
+    translator: Translator
   ): string {
     const { items } = this
 
@@ -108,29 +111,35 @@ export class ListFormComponent extends FormComponent {
 
     return items
       .filter((item) => values.includes(item.value))
-      .map((item) => item.text)
+      .map((item) => translator.tListItem(item, 'text') || item.text)
       .join(', ')
   }
 
-  getDisplayStringFromState(state: FormSubmissionState) {
+  getDisplayStringFromState(
+    state: FormSubmissionState,
+    translator: Translator
+  ) {
     // Allow for array values via subclass
     const value = this.getFormValueFromState(state)
 
-    return this.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(value)
+    return this.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(value, translator)
   }
 
-  getViewModel(payload: FormPayload, errors?: FormSubmissionError[]) {
+  getViewModel(context: RenderContext) {
     const { items: listItems } = this
 
-    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(context)
     const { value } = viewModel
 
     // Support multiple values for checkboxes
     const values = this.isValue(value) ? [value].flat() : []
 
+    const { tListItem } = context.translator
+
     const items = listItems.map((item) => {
       const selected = values.includes(item.value)
-      const itemModel: ListItem = { ...item, selected }
+      const resolvedText = tListItem(item, 'text') || item.text
+      const itemModel: ListItem = { ...item, text: resolvedText, selected }
 
       if ('id' in itemModel) {
         delete itemModel.id
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldBase.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldBase.test.ts
index f8f7970b5..fde054b5a 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldBase.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldBase.test.ts
@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@ import { type LanguageMessages } from 'joi'
 
 import { LocationFieldBase } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldBase.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 import { getFormData } from '~/test/helpers/component-helpers.js'
 
@@ -82,7 +83,11 @@ describe('LocationFieldBase', () => {
       } as ConstructorParameters<typeof TestLocationField>[0]
 
       const field = new TestLocationField(def, { model })
-      const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData('TEST1234'))
+      const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+        payload: getFormData('TEST1234'),
+        errors: undefined,
+        translator: stubTranslator
+      })
 
       const instructionText =
         'instructionText' in viewModel ? viewModel.instructionText : undefined
@@ -100,7 +105,11 @@ describe('LocationFieldBase', () => {
       } as ConstructorParameters<typeof TestLocationField>[0]
 
       const field = new TestLocationField(def, { model })
-      const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData('TEST1234'))
+      const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+        payload: getFormData('TEST1234'),
+        errors: undefined,
+        translator: stubTranslator
+      })
 
       expect(
         'instructionText' in viewModel ? viewModel.instructionText : undefined
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldBase.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldBase.ts
index ed1c943a1..c2b09465c 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldBase.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldBase.ts
@@ -10,13 +10,12 @@ import {
   isFormValue
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FormComponent.js'
 import { addClassOptionIfNone } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/index.js'
+import { type RenderContext } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
 import { messageTemplate } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.js'
 import {
   type ErrorMessageTemplateList,
-  type FormPayload,
   type FormState,
   type FormStateValue,
-  type FormSubmissionError,
   type FormSubmissionState
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 import { convertToLanguageMessages } from '~/src/server/utils/type-utils.js'
@@ -63,8 +62,7 @@ export abstract class LocationFieldBase extends FormComponent {
     addClassOptionIfNone(locationOptions, 'govuk-input--width-10')
 
     const config = this.getValidationConfig()
-    const requiredMessage =
-      config.requiredMessage ?? (messageTemplate.required as string)
+    const requiredMessage = config.requiredMessage ?? messageTemplate.required
 
     const messages = convertToLanguageMessages({
       'any.required': requiredMessage,
@@ -120,8 +118,8 @@ export abstract class LocationFieldBase extends FormComponent {
     return LocationFieldBase.isText(value)
   }
 
-  getViewModel(payload: FormPayload, errors?: FormSubmissionError[]) {
-    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+  getViewModel(context: RenderContext) {
+    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(context)
 
     if (this.instructionText) {
       return {
@@ -140,8 +138,7 @@ export abstract class LocationFieldBase extends FormComponent {
       baseErrors: [
         {
           type: 'required',
-          template:
-            config.requiredMessage ?? (messageTemplate.required as string)
+          template: config.requiredMessage ?? messageTemplate.required
         },
         ...this.getErrorTemplates()
       ],
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldHelpers.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldHelpers.test.ts
index 92360edfe..b410e37f2 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldHelpers.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldHelpers.test.ts
@@ -9,6 +9,7 @@ import {
   mergeCssClasses
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldHelpers.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import { type FormSubmissionError } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 
@@ -276,7 +277,11 @@ describe('LocationFieldHelpers', () => {
         myComponent__longitude: -0.1
       }
 
-      const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload)
+      const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+        payload,
+        errors: undefined,
+        translator: stubTranslator
+      })
 
       expect(viewModel.fieldset).toEqual({
         legend: {
@@ -307,7 +312,11 @@ describe('LocationFieldHelpers', () => {
         myComponent__longitude: -0.1
       }
 
-      const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload)
+      const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+        payload,
+        errors: undefined,
+        translator: stubTranslator
+      })
 
       const instructionText =
         'instructionText' in viewModel ? viewModel.instructionText : undefined
@@ -341,7 +350,11 @@ describe('LocationFieldHelpers', () => {
         }
       ]
 
-      const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+      const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+        payload,
+        errors,
+        translator: stubTranslator
+      })
 
       // Check that errors are passed to the viewModel
       expect(viewModel.errors).toEqual(errors)
@@ -389,7 +402,11 @@ describe('LocationFieldHelpers', () => {
         }
       ]
 
-      const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+      const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+        payload,
+        errors,
+        translator: stubTranslator
+      })
 
       // Single errors should be displayed at fieldset level
       expect(viewModel.items[0].errorMessage).toBeUndefined()
@@ -437,7 +454,11 @@ describe('LocationFieldHelpers', () => {
         }
       ]
 
-      const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+      const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+        payload,
+        errors,
+        translator: stubTranslator
+      })
 
       expect(viewModel.items[0].errorMessage).toBeUndefined()
       expect(viewModel.items[1].errorMessage).toBeUndefined()
@@ -469,7 +490,11 @@ describe('LocationFieldHelpers', () => {
       }
 
       // No errors passed in, but the subViewModels might have errors from elsewhere
-      const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload, [])
+      const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+        payload,
+        errors: [],
+        translator: stubTranslator
+      })
 
       // When no field errors, items should not have error messages
       expect(viewModel.items[0].errorMessage).toBeUndefined()
@@ -511,7 +536,11 @@ describe('LocationFieldHelpers', () => {
         }
       ]
 
-      const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+      const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+        payload,
+        errors,
+        translator: stubTranslator
+      })
 
       // No individual field errors
       expect(viewModel.items[0].errorMessage).toBeUndefined()
@@ -545,7 +574,11 @@ describe('LocationFieldHelpers', () => {
         myComponent__longitude: '-0.1'
       }
 
-      const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload)
+      const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+        payload,
+        errors: undefined,
+        translator: stubTranslator
+      })
 
       // When no errors and no additional classes, classes should not include govuk-input--error
       expect(viewModel.items[0].classes).not.toContain('govuk-input--error')
@@ -569,7 +602,11 @@ describe('LocationFieldHelpers', () => {
         myComponent__longitude: '-0.1'
       }
 
-      const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload)
+      const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+        payload,
+        errors: undefined,
+        translator: stubTranslator
+      })
 
       const label = viewModel.items[0].label
       expect(label).toBeDefined()
@@ -599,7 +636,11 @@ describe('LocationFieldHelpers', () => {
         myComponent__longitude: -0.1
       }
 
-      const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload)
+      const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+        payload,
+        errors: undefined,
+        translator: stubTranslator
+      })
 
       expect(viewModel.fieldset).toBeDefined()
     })
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldHelpers.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldHelpers.ts
index 50a891d03..206218a7f 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldHelpers.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldHelpers.ts
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ import { type LatLongField } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LatLon
 import {
   type DateInputItem,
   type Label,
+  type RenderContext,
   type ViewModel
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
 import {
@@ -94,13 +95,12 @@ export function getLocationFieldViewModel(
     name: string
     value: FormValue
   },
-  payload: FormPayload,
-  errors?: FormSubmissionError[]
+  context: RenderContext
 ) {
   const { collection } = component
   const { fieldset: existingFieldset, label } = viewModel
 
-  const subViewModels = collection.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+  const subViewModels = collection.getViewModel(context)
 
   const fieldErrors: string[] = []
   subViewModels.forEach(({ model }) => {
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/MonthYearField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/MonthYearField.test.ts
index 582d1f4a4..075c57b90 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/MonthYearField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/MonthYearField.test.ts
@@ -2,18 +2,24 @@ import { ComponentType, type MonthYearFieldComponent } from '@defra/forms-model'
 import { addMonths, format, startOfDay, startOfMonth } from 'date-fns'
 
 import { ComponentCollection } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/ComponentCollection.js'
+import { type MonthYearField } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/MonthYearField.js'
 import {
   getAnswer,
   type Field
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { type DateInputItem } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import {
   type FormPayload,
   type FormState
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe('MonthYearField', () => {
   let model: FormModel
 
@@ -49,10 +55,14 @@ describe('MonthYearField', () => {
         expect(keys).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
             myComponent__month: expect.objectContaining({
-              flags: expect.objectContaining({ label: 'Month' })
+              flags: expect.objectContaining({
+                label: 'components.monthYearField.month'
+              })
             }),
             myComponent__year: expect.objectContaining({
-              flags: expect.objectContaining({ label: 'Year' })
+              flags: expect.objectContaining({
+                label: 'components.monthYearField.year'
+              })
             })
           })
         )
@@ -135,9 +145,10 @@ describe('MonthYearField', () => {
         )
 
         expect(result1.errors).toBeUndefined()
+        // Sub-field title is a key constant; error text uses raw key until Task 9.
         expect(result2.errors).toEqual([
           expect.objectContaining({
-            text: 'Example month/year field must include a year'
+            text: 'Example month/year field must include a components.monthYearField.year'
           })
         ])
       })
@@ -169,12 +180,13 @@ describe('MonthYearField', () => {
           })
         )
 
+        // Sub-field titles are key constants; error text uses raw keys until Task 9.
         expect(result.errors).toEqual([
           expect.objectContaining({
-            text: 'Example month/year must include a month'
+            text: 'Example month/year must include a components.monthYearField.month'
           }),
           expect.objectContaining({
-            text: 'Example month/year must include a year'
+            text: 'Example month/year must include a components.monthYearField.year'
           })
         ])
       })
@@ -195,12 +207,13 @@ describe('MonthYearField', () => {
           })
         )
 
+        // Sub-field titles are key constants; error text uses raw keys until Task 9.
         expect(result.errors).toEqual([
           expect.objectContaining({
-            text: 'Example month/year field must include a month'
+            text: 'Example month/year field must include a components.monthYearField.month'
           }),
           expect.objectContaining({
-            text: 'Example month/year field must include a year'
+            text: 'Example month/year field must include a components.monthYearField.year'
           })
         ])
       })
@@ -250,8 +263,8 @@ describe('MonthYearField', () => {
         const state1 = getFormState(date)
         const state2 = getFormState({})
 
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, translator)
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, translator)
 
         expect(answer1).toBe('December 2024')
         expect(answer2).toBe('')
@@ -325,7 +338,11 @@ describe('MonthYearField', () => {
 
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults', () => {
         const payload = getFormData(date)
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload)
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload,
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -360,7 +377,11 @@ describe('MonthYearField', () => {
           year: 'YYYY'
         })
 
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload)
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload,
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -379,7 +400,11 @@ describe('MonthYearField', () => {
 
       it('sets Nunjucks component fieldset', () => {
         const payload = getFormData(date)
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload)
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload,
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel.fieldset).toEqual({
           legend: {
@@ -621,6 +646,33 @@ describe('MonthYearField', () => {
       )
     })
   })
+
+  describe('sub-field title key constants', () => {
+    let monthYear: MonthYearField
+
+    beforeEach(() => {
+      const def: MonthYearFieldComponent = {
+        title: 'Date of issue',
+        name: 'issueDate',
+        type: ComponentType.MonthYearField,
+        options: {}
+      }
+      const coll = new ComponentCollection([def], { model })
+      monthYear = coll.fields[0] as MonthYearField
+    })
+
+    it('stores month sub-field title as i18next key constant', () => {
+      expect(monthYear.collection.fields[0].title).toBe(
+        'components.monthYearField.month'
+      )
+    })
+
+    it('stores year sub-field title as i18next key constant', () => {
+      expect(monthYear.collection.fields[1].title).toBe(
+        'components.monthYearField.year'
+      )
+    })
+  })
 })
 
 /**
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/MonthYearField.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/MonthYearField.ts
index e26b3b770..c0172e197 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/MonthYearField.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/MonthYearField.ts
@@ -16,16 +16,18 @@ import {
 import { NumberField } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/NumberField.js'
 import {
   type DateInputItem,
-  type MonthYearState
+  type MonthYearState,
+  type RenderContext
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
 import { parseStrictDate } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/date-helper.js'
+import { buildValidationMessages } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/buildValidationMessages.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { messageTemplate } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.js'
 import {
   type ErrorMessageTemplateList,
   type FormPayload,
   type FormState,
   type FormStateValue,
-  type FormSubmissionError,
   type FormSubmissionState
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 import { convertToLanguageMessages } from '~/src/server/utils/type-utils.js'
@@ -62,7 +64,7 @@ export class MonthYearField extends FormComponent {
         {
           type: ComponentType.NumberField,
           name: `${name}__month`,
-          title: 'Month',
+          title: 'components.monthYearField.month',
           schema: { min: 1, max: 12, precision: 0 },
           options: {
             required: isRequired,
@@ -74,7 +76,7 @@ export class MonthYearField extends FormComponent {
         {
           type: ComponentType.NumberField,
           name: `${name}__year`,
-          title: 'Year',
+          title: 'components.monthYearField.year',
           schema: { min: 1000, max: 3000, precision: 0 },
           options: {
             required: isRequired,
@@ -101,7 +103,10 @@ export class MonthYearField extends FormComponent {
     return MonthYearField.isMonthYear(value) ? value : undefined
   }
 
-  getDisplayStringFromFormValue(value: MonthYearState | undefined): string {
+  getDisplayStringFromFormValue(
+    value: MonthYearState | undefined,
+    _translator: Translator
+  ): string {
     if (!value) {
       return ''
     }
@@ -113,10 +118,13 @@ export class MonthYearField extends FormComponent {
     return `${monthString} ${value.year}`
   }
 
-  getDisplayStringFromState(state: FormSubmissionState) {
+  getDisplayStringFromState(
+    state: FormSubmissionState,
+    translator: Translator
+  ) {
     const value = this.getFormValueFromState(state)
 
-    return this.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(value)
+    return this.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(value, translator)
   }
 
   getContextValueFromFormValue(
@@ -145,10 +153,24 @@ export class MonthYearField extends FormComponent {
     return this.getContextValueFromFormValue(value)
   }
 
-  getViewModel(payload: FormPayload, errors?: FormSubmissionError[]) {
+  getValidationMessagesOverride(translator: Translator) {
+    const { t } = translator
+    return convertToLanguageMessages({
+      'any.required': buildValidationMessages(t).objectMissing,
+      'number.base': buildValidationMessages(t).objectMissing,
+      'number.precision': buildValidationMessages(t).dateFormat,
+      'number.integer': buildValidationMessages(t).dateFormat,
+      'number.unsafe': buildValidationMessages(t).dateFormat,
+      'number.min': buildValidationMessages(t).dateFormat,
+      'number.max': buildValidationMessages(t).dateFormat
+    })
+  }
+
+  getViewModel(context: RenderContext) {
+    const { errors } = context
     const { collection, name } = this
 
-    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(context)
     let { fieldset, label } = viewModel
 
     // Check for component errors only
@@ -156,7 +178,7 @@ export class MonthYearField extends FormComponent {
 
     // Use the component collection to generate the subitems
     const items: DateInputItem[] = collection
-      .getViewModel(payload, errors)
+      .getViewModel(context)
       .map(({ model }) => {
         let { label, type, value, classes, errorMessage } = model
 
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/MultilineTextField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/MultilineTextField.test.ts
index 9cbd20dc4..4c9fefe71 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/MultilineTextField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/MultilineTextField.test.ts
@@ -10,9 +10,14 @@ import {
   type Field
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 import { getFormData, getFormState } from '~/test/helpers/component-helpers.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe('MultilineTextField', () => {
   let model: FormModel
 
@@ -154,8 +159,8 @@ describe('MultilineTextField', () => {
         const state1 = getFormState('Textarea')
         const state2 = getFormState(null)
 
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, translator)
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, translator)
 
         expect(answer1).toBe('Textarea')
         expect(answer2).toBe('')
@@ -165,8 +170,8 @@ describe('MultilineTextField', () => {
         const state1 = getFormState('Line 1\r\nLine 2\r\nLine 3')
         const state2 = getFormState('Line 1\r\n\r\nLine 2\r\n\r\n\r\nLine 3')
 
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, translator)
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, translator)
 
         expect(answer1).toBe('Line 1<br>Line 2<br>Line 3<br>')
         expect(answer2).toBe('Line 1<br>Line 2<br>Line 3<br>')
@@ -219,7 +224,11 @@ describe('MultilineTextField', () => {
 
     describe('View model', () => {
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults', () => {
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData('Textarea'))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData('Textarea'),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -242,15 +251,23 @@ describe('MultilineTextField', () => {
           { model }
         )
 
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData('Textarea'))
-
-        const viewModel1 = componentCustom1.getViewModel(
-          getFormData('Textarea custom #1')
-        )
-
-        const viewModel2 = componentCustom2.getViewModel(
-          getFormData('Textarea custom #2')
-        )
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData('Textarea'),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
+
+        const viewModel1 = componentCustom1.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData('Textarea custom #1'),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
+
+        const viewModel2 = componentCustom2.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData('Textarea custom #2'),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({ isCharacterOrWordCount: false })
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/MultilineTextField.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/MultilineTextField.ts
index 37971b78d..c866108b4 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/MultilineTextField.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/MultilineTextField.ts
@@ -3,12 +3,9 @@ import Joi, { type CustomValidator, type StringSchema } from 'joi'
 
 import { type ComponentBase } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/ComponentBase.js'
 import { FormComponent } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FormComponent.js'
+import { type RenderContext } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
 import { messageTemplate } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.js'
-import {
-  type ErrorMessageTemplateList,
-  type FormPayload,
-  type FormSubmissionError
-} from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
+import { type ErrorMessageTemplateList } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 
 export class MultilineTextField extends FormComponent {
   declare options: MultilineTextFieldComponent['options']
@@ -94,10 +91,10 @@ export class MultilineTextField extends FormComponent {
     this.schema = schema
   }
 
-  getViewModel(payload: FormPayload, errors?: FormSubmissionError[]) {
+  getViewModel(context: RenderContext) {
     const { schema, options, isCharacterOrWordCount } = this
 
-    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(context)
     let { maxlength, maxwords, rows } = viewModel
 
     if (schema.max) {
@@ -122,7 +119,7 @@ export class MultilineTextField extends FormComponent {
   }
 
   buildMinMaxText(min?: number, max?: number): string {
-    const minMaxError = messageTemplate.minMax as string
+    const minMaxError = messageTemplate.minMax
     return minMaxError
       .replace('{{#min}}', min ? min.toString() : '[min length]')
       .replace('{{#max}}', max ? max.toString() : '[max length]')
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/NationalGridFieldNumberField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/NationalGridFieldNumberField.test.ts
index 00a67d634..d31972650 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/NationalGridFieldNumberField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/NationalGridFieldNumberField.test.ts
@@ -10,9 +10,14 @@ import {
   type Field
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 import { getFormData, getFormState } from '~/test/helpers/component-helpers.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe('NationalGridFieldNumberField', () => {
   let model: FormModel
 
@@ -150,8 +155,8 @@ describe('NationalGridFieldNumberField', () => {
         const state1 = getFormState('NG12345678')
         const state2 = getFormState(null)
 
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, translator)
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, translator)
 
         expect(answer1).toBe('NG12345678')
         expect(answer2).toBe('')
@@ -204,7 +209,11 @@ describe('NationalGridFieldNumberField', () => {
 
     describe('View model', () => {
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults', () => {
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData('NG12345678'))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData('NG12345678'),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -225,9 +234,11 @@ describe('NationalGridFieldNumberField', () => {
           { model }
         )
 
-        const viewModel = componentWithInstruction.getViewModel(
-          getFormData('NG12345678')
-        )
+        const viewModel = componentWithInstruction.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData('NG12345678'),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         const instructionText =
           'instructionText' in viewModel ? viewModel.instructionText : undefined
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/NationalGridFieldNumberField.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/NationalGridFieldNumberField.ts
index acf08c955..e3186c68e 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/NationalGridFieldNumberField.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/NationalGridFieldNumberField.ts
@@ -2,6 +2,8 @@ import { type NationalGridFieldNumberFieldComponent } from '@defra/forms-model'
 
 import { LocationFieldBase } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldBase.js'
 import { createLowerFirstExpression } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/index.js'
+import { t } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/index.js'
+import { type ErrorMessageTemplateList } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 
 export class NationalGridFieldNumberField extends LocationFieldBase {
   declare options: NationalGridFieldNumberFieldComponent['options']
@@ -13,14 +15,13 @@ export class NationalGridFieldNumberField extends LocationFieldBase {
     const pattern =
       /^((([sS]|[nN])[a-hA-Hj-zJ-Z])|(([tT]|[oO])[abfglmqrvwABFGLMQRVW])|([hH][l-zL-Z])|([jJ][lmqrvwLMQRVW]))\s?([0-9]{4})\s?([0-9]{4})$/
 
-    const patternTemplate =
-      'Enter a valid National Grid field number for {{lowerFirst(#title)}} like NG 1234 5678'
-
     return {
       pattern,
-      patternErrorMessage: createLowerFirstExpression(patternTemplate),
+      patternErrorMessage: createLowerFirstExpression(
+        t('components.nationalGridField.pattern', 'en-GB')
+      ),
       requiredMessage: createLowerFirstExpression(
-        'Enter {{lowerFirst(#title)}}'
+        t('components.nationalGridField.required', 'en-GB')
       )
     }
   }
@@ -30,7 +31,7 @@ export class NationalGridFieldNumberField extends LocationFieldBase {
       {
         type: 'pattern',
         template: createLowerFirstExpression(
-          'Enter a valid National Grid field number for {{lowerFirst(#title)}} like NG 1234 5678'
+          t('components.nationalGridField.pattern', 'en-GB')
         )
       }
     ]
@@ -39,10 +40,23 @@ export class NationalGridFieldNumberField extends LocationFieldBase {
   /**
    * Static version of getAllPossibleErrors that doesn't require a component instance.
    */
-  static getAllPossibleErrors() {
-    const instance = Object.create(
-      NationalGridFieldNumberField.prototype
-    ) as NationalGridFieldNumberField
-    return instance.getAllPossibleErrors()
+  static getAllPossibleErrors(): ErrorMessageTemplateList {
+    return {
+      baseErrors: [
+        {
+          type: 'required',
+          template: createLowerFirstExpression(
+            t('components.nationalGridField.required', 'en-GB')
+          )
+        },
+        {
+          type: 'pattern',
+          template: createLowerFirstExpression(
+            t('components.nationalGridField.pattern', 'en-GB')
+          )
+        }
+      ],
+      advancedSettingsErrors: []
+    }
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/NumberField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/NumberField.test.ts
index 28b266df0..f9de841ed 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/NumberField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/NumberField.test.ts
@@ -7,9 +7,14 @@ import {
   type Field
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 import { getFormData, getFormState } from '~/test/helpers/component-helpers.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe('NumberField', () => {
   let model: FormModel
 
@@ -155,8 +160,8 @@ describe('NumberField', () => {
         const state1 = getFormState(2024)
         const state2 = getFormState(null)
 
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, translator)
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, translator)
 
         expect(answer1).toBe('2024')
         expect(answer2).toBe('')
@@ -209,7 +214,11 @@ describe('NumberField', () => {
 
     describe('View model', () => {
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults', () => {
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData(2024))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData(2024),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -227,7 +236,11 @@ describe('NumberField', () => {
           { model }
         )
 
-        const viewModel = componentCustom.getViewModel(getFormData(99.99))
+        const viewModel = componentCustom.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData(99.99),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel.prefix).toEqual({ text: '£' })
         expect(viewModel.suffix).toEqual({ text: 'per item' })
@@ -239,7 +252,11 @@ describe('NumberField', () => {
           { model }
         )
 
-        const viewModel = componentCustom.getViewModel(getFormData(99))
+        const viewModel = componentCustom.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData(99),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel.attributes).toHaveProperty('inputmode', 'numeric')
       })
@@ -250,7 +267,11 @@ describe('NumberField', () => {
           { model }
         )
 
-        const viewModel = componentCustom.getViewModel(getFormData(99))
+        const viewModel = componentCustom.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData(99),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel.attributes).toHaveProperty('inputmode', 'numeric')
       })
@@ -261,14 +282,22 @@ describe('NumberField', () => {
           { model }
         )
 
-        const viewModel = componentCustom.getViewModel(getFormData(99.99))
+        const viewModel = componentCustom.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData(99.99),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel.attributes).not.toHaveProperty('inputmode', 'numeric')
       })
     })
 
     it('sets Nunjucks component value when invalid', () => {
-      const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData('AA'))
+      const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+        payload: getFormData('AA'),
+        errors: undefined,
+        translator: stubTranslator
+      })
 
       expect(viewModel).toHaveProperty('value', 'AA')
     })
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/NumberField.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/NumberField.ts
index ec138d3dd..0b1e2b57a 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/NumberField.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/NumberField.ts
@@ -5,13 +5,12 @@ import {
   FormComponent,
   isFormValue
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FormComponent.js'
+import { type RenderContext } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
 import { messageTemplate } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.js'
 import {
   type ErrorMessageTemplateList,
-  type FormPayload,
   type FormState,
   type FormStateValue,
-  type FormSubmissionError,
   type FormSubmissionState
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 
@@ -88,10 +87,10 @@ export class NumberField extends FormComponent {
     return this.isValue(value) ? value : undefined
   }
 
-  getViewModel(payload: FormPayload, errors?: FormSubmissionError[]) {
+  getViewModel(context: RenderContext) {
     const { options, schema } = this
 
-    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(context)
     let { attributes, prefix, suffix, value } = viewModel
 
     if (typeof schema.precision === 'undefined' || schema.precision <= 0) {
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/OsGridRefField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/OsGridRefField.test.ts
index 9183fb081..0b6184b05 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/OsGridRefField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/OsGridRefField.test.ts
@@ -7,9 +7,14 @@ import {
   type Field
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 import { getFormData, getFormState } from '~/test/helpers/component-helpers.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe('OsGridRefField', () => {
   let model: FormModel
 
@@ -166,8 +171,8 @@ describe('OsGridRefField', () => {
         const state1 = getFormState('TQ12345678')
         const state2 = getFormState(null)
 
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, translator)
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, translator)
 
         expect(answer1).toBe('TQ12345678')
         expect(answer2).toBe('')
@@ -220,7 +225,11 @@ describe('OsGridRefField', () => {
 
     describe('View model', () => {
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults', () => {
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData('TQ12345678'))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData('TQ12345678'),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -241,9 +250,11 @@ describe('OsGridRefField', () => {
           { model }
         )
 
-        const viewModel = componentWithInstruction.getViewModel(
-          getFormData('TQ12345678')
-        )
+        const viewModel = componentWithInstruction.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData('TQ12345678'),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         const instructionText =
           'instructionText' in viewModel ? viewModel.instructionText : undefined
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/OsGridRefField.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/OsGridRefField.ts
index f2561e7f6..dc61fc6dd 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/OsGridRefField.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/OsGridRefField.ts
@@ -2,6 +2,8 @@ import { type OsGridRefFieldComponent } from '@defra/forms-model'
 
 import { LocationFieldBase } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/LocationFieldBase.js'
 import { createLowerFirstExpression } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/index.js'
+import { t } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/index.js'
+import { type ErrorMessageTemplateList } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 
 export class OsGridRefField extends LocationFieldBase {
   declare options: OsGridRefFieldComponent['options']
@@ -16,14 +18,13 @@ export class OsGridRefField extends LocationFieldBase {
     const pattern =
       /^((([sS]|[nN])[a-hA-Hj-zJ-Z])|(([tT]|[oO])[abfglmqrvwABFGLMQRVW])|([hH][l-zL-Z])|([jJ][lmqrvwLMQRVW]))\s?(([0-9]{3})\s?([0-9]{3})|([0-9]{4})\s?([0-9]{4})|([0-9]{5})\s?([0-9]{5}))$/
 
-    const patternTemplate =
-      'Enter a valid OS grid reference for {{lowerFirst(#title)}} like TQ123456'
-
     return {
       pattern,
-      patternErrorMessage: createLowerFirstExpression(patternTemplate),
+      patternErrorMessage: createLowerFirstExpression(
+        t('components.osGridRefField.pattern', 'en-GB')
+      ),
       requiredMessage: createLowerFirstExpression(
-        'Enter {{lowerFirst(#title)}}'
+        t('components.osGridRefField.required', 'en-GB')
       )
     }
   }
@@ -33,7 +34,7 @@ export class OsGridRefField extends LocationFieldBase {
       {
         type: 'pattern',
         template: createLowerFirstExpression(
-          'Enter a valid OS grid reference for {{lowerFirst(#title)}} like TQ123456'
+          t('components.osGridRefField.pattern', 'en-GB')
         )
       }
     ]
@@ -42,8 +43,23 @@ export class OsGridRefField extends LocationFieldBase {
   /**
    * Static version of getAllPossibleErrors that doesn't require a component instance.
    */
-  static getAllPossibleErrors() {
-    const instance = Object.create(OsGridRefField.prototype) as OsGridRefField
-    return instance.getAllPossibleErrors()
+  static getAllPossibleErrors(): ErrorMessageTemplateList {
+    return {
+      baseErrors: [
+        {
+          type: 'required',
+          template: createLowerFirstExpression(
+            t('components.osGridRefField.required', 'en-GB')
+          )
+        },
+        {
+          type: 'pattern',
+          template: createLowerFirstExpression(
+            t('components.osGridRefField.pattern', 'en-GB')
+          )
+        }
+      ],
+      advancedSettingsErrors: []
+    }
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/PaymentField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/PaymentField.test.ts
index 7ac98b949..30211787c 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/PaymentField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/PaymentField.test.ts
@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ import {
   type Field
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import { PaymentPreAuthError } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/errors.js'
 import {
   type FormContext,
@@ -30,6 +31,26 @@ import { getFormData, getFormState } from '~/test/helpers/component-helpers.js'
 
 jest.mock('~/src/server/services/httpService.ts')
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
+const mockRequestBase = {
+  server: {
+    plugins: {
+      // eslint-disable-next-line no-useless-computed-key
+      ['forms-engine-plugin']: {
+        baseUrl: 'base-url'
+      }
+    }
+  },
+  query: {},
+  yar: {
+    get: jest.fn(),
+    set: jest.fn()
+  }
+} as unknown as FormRequestPayload
+
 const mockServices = {
   formsService: {
     getFormSecret: () => 'secret-value'
@@ -189,8 +210,8 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
         const state1 = getFormState(paymentForState as unknown as FormValue)
         const state2 = getFormState(null)
 
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, translator)
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, translator)
 
         expect(answer1).toBe('£150.00 - payment description')
         expect(answer2).toBe('')
@@ -199,7 +220,11 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
 
     describe('View model', () => {
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults', () => {
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData(undefined))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData(undefined),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -223,7 +248,11 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
           description: 'Test payment description',
           isLivePayment: false
         } as unknown as FormValue
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData(paymentForViewModel))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData(paymentForViewModel),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -260,20 +289,16 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
 
     const collection = new ComponentCollection([def], { model })
     const paymentField = collection.fields[0] as PaymentField
-    paymentField.model = { services: mockServices } as unknown as FormModel
+    paymentField.model = {
+      services: mockServices,
+      createTranslator: (lang: string) => model.createTranslator(lang)
+    } as unknown as FormModel
 
     describe('dispatcher', () => {
       it('should create payment and redirect to gov pay', async () => {
         const mockYarSet = jest.fn()
         const mockRequest = {
-          server: {
-            plugins: {
-              // eslint-disable-next-line no-useless-computed-key
-              ['forms-engine-plugin']: {
-                baseUrl: 'base-url'
-              }
-            }
-          },
+          ...mockRequestBase,
           yar: {
             set: mockYarSet
           }
@@ -289,7 +314,8 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
               formId: 'formid',
               basePath: 'base-path',
               name: 'PaymentModel',
-              services: mockServices
+              services: mockServices,
+              createTranslator: (lang: string) => model.createTranslator(lang)
             },
             getState: jest
               .fn()
@@ -336,26 +362,15 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
         const mockH = {
           redirect: jest.fn().mockReturnValueOnce({ code: mockRedirectCode })
         } as unknown as FormResponseToolkit
-        const mockRequest = {
-          server: {
-            plugins: {
-              // eslint-disable-next-line no-useless-computed-key
-              ['forms-engine-plugin']: {
-                baseUrl: 'base-url'
-              }
-            }
-          },
-          yar: {
-            set: jest.fn()
-          }
-        } as unknown as FormRequestPayload
+        const mockRequest = mockRequestBase
         const args = {
           controller: {
             model: {
               formId: 'formid',
               basePath: 'base-path',
               name: 'PaymentModel',
-              services: mockServices
+              services: mockServices,
+              createTranslator: (lang: string) => model.createTranslator(lang)
             },
             getState: jest.fn().mockResolvedValueOnce({
               $$__referenceNumber: 'pay-ref-123',
@@ -390,14 +405,7 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
         const mockYarSet = jest.fn()
         const mockYarFlash = jest.fn()
         const mockRequest = {
-          server: {
-            plugins: {
-              // eslint-disable-next-line no-useless-computed-key
-              ['forms-engine-plugin']: {
-                baseUrl: 'base-url'
-              }
-            }
-          },
+          ...mockRequestBase,
           yar: {
             set: mockYarSet,
             flash: mockYarFlash
@@ -417,7 +425,8 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
               formId: 'formid',
               basePath: 'base-path',
               name: 'PaymentModel',
-              services: mockServices
+              services: mockServices,
+              createTranslator: (lang: string) => model.createTranslator(lang)
             },
             getState: jest
               .fn()
@@ -451,14 +460,7 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
         const mockYarSet = jest.fn()
         const mockYarFlash = jest.fn()
         const mockRequest = {
-          server: {
-            plugins: {
-              // eslint-disable-next-line no-useless-computed-key
-              ['forms-engine-plugin']: {
-                baseUrl: 'base-url'
-              }
-            }
-          },
+          ...mockRequestBase,
           yar: {
             set: mockYarSet,
             flash: mockYarFlash
@@ -478,7 +480,8 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
               formId: 'formid',
               basePath: 'base-path',
               name: 'PaymentModel',
-              services: mockServices
+              services: mockServices,
+              createTranslator: (lang: string) => model.createTranslator(lang)
             },
             getState: jest
               .fn()
@@ -511,7 +514,7 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
 
     describe('onSubmit', () => {
       it('should throw if missing state', async () => {
-        const mockRequest = {} as unknown as FormRequestPayload
+        const mockRequest = mockRequestBase
 
         const error = await paymentField
           .onSubmit(
@@ -529,7 +532,7 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
       })
 
       it('should ignore if our state says payment already captured', async () => {
-        const mockRequest = {} as unknown as FormRequestPayload
+        const mockRequest = mockRequestBase
 
         await paymentField.onSubmit(
           mockRequest,
@@ -552,7 +555,7 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
       })
 
       it('should mark payment already captured according to gov pay', async () => {
-        const mockRequest = {} as unknown as FormRequestPayload
+        const mockRequest = mockRequestBase
         jest
           .mocked(get)
           // @ts-expect-error - partial mock
@@ -579,7 +582,7 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
       })
 
       it('should throw if bad status', async () => {
-        const mockRequest = {} as unknown as FormRequestPayload
+        const mockRequest = mockRequestBase
         jest
           .mocked(get)
           // @ts-expect-error - partial mock
@@ -612,7 +615,7 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
       })
 
       it('should throw if error during capture', async () => {
-        const mockRequest = {} as unknown as FormRequestPayload
+        const mockRequest = mockRequestBase
         jest
           .mocked(get)
           // @ts-expect-error - partial mock
@@ -647,7 +650,7 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
       })
 
       it('should throw if amount mismatch', async () => {
-        const mockRequest = {} as unknown as FormRequestPayload
+        const mockRequest = mockRequestBase
         jest
           .mocked(get)
           // @ts-expect-error - partial mock
@@ -682,7 +685,7 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
       })
 
       it('should capture payment if no errors', async () => {
-        const mockRequest = {} as unknown as FormRequestPayload
+        const mockRequest = mockRequestBase
         jest
           .mocked(get)
           // @ts-expect-error - partial mock
@@ -856,14 +859,7 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
       const mockH = {
         redirect: jest.fn().mockReturnValueOnce({ code: mockRedirectCode })
       } as unknown as FormResponseToolkit
-      const mockRequest = {
-        server: {
-          plugins: {
-            'forms-engine-plugin': { baseUrl: 'base-url' }
-          }
-        },
-        yar: { set: jest.fn() }
-      } as unknown as FormRequestPayload
+      const mockRequest = mockRequestBase
       const args = {
         controller: {
           model: {
@@ -872,7 +868,8 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
             services: mockServices,
             conditions: {
               'cond-zero': { fn: () => true }
-            }
+            },
+            createTranslator: (lang: string) => model.createTranslator(lang)
           },
           getState: jest.fn().mockResolvedValueOnce({
             $$__referenceNumber: 'ref-123'
@@ -893,11 +890,7 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
     it('should use resolved amount when creating payment', async () => {
       const mockYarSet = jest.fn()
       const mockRequest = {
-        server: {
-          plugins: {
-            'forms-engine-plugin': { baseUrl: 'base-url' }
-          }
-        },
+        ...mockRequestBase,
         yar: { set: mockYarSet }
       } as unknown as FormRequestPayload
       const mockH = {
@@ -922,7 +915,8 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
             services: mockServices,
             conditions: {
               'cond-100': { fn: () => true }
-            }
+            },
+            createTranslator: (lang: string) => model.createTranslator(lang)
           },
           getState: jest.fn().mockResolvedValueOnce({
             $$__referenceNumber: 'ref-123'
@@ -963,14 +957,7 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
         }
       } satisfies PaymentFieldComponent
 
-      const mockRequest = {
-        server: {
-          plugins: {
-            'forms-engine-plugin': { baseUrl: 'base-url' }
-          }
-        },
-        yar: { set: jest.fn() }
-      } as unknown as FormRequestPayload
+      const mockRequest = mockRequestBase
       const mockH = {
         redirect: jest
           .fn()
@@ -982,7 +969,8 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
             formId: 'formid',
             basePath: 'base-path',
             services: mockServices,
-            conditions: {}
+            conditions: {},
+            createTranslator: (lang: string) => model.createTranslator(lang)
           },
           getState: jest.fn().mockResolvedValueOnce({
             $$__referenceNumber: 'ref-123',
@@ -1027,14 +1015,7 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
         }
       } satisfies PaymentFieldComponent
 
-      const mockRequest = {
-        server: {
-          plugins: {
-            'forms-engine-plugin': { baseUrl: 'base-url' }
-          }
-        },
-        yar: { set: jest.fn() }
-      } as unknown as FormRequestPayload
+      const mockRequest = mockRequestBase
       const mockH = {
         redirect: jest
           .fn()
@@ -1046,7 +1027,8 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
             formId: 'formid',
             basePath: 'base-path',
             services: mockServices,
-            conditions: {}
+            conditions: {},
+            createTranslator: (lang: string) => model.createTranslator(lang)
           },
           getState: jest.fn().mockResolvedValueOnce({
             $$__referenceNumber: 'ref-123'
@@ -1090,14 +1072,7 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
         }
       } satisfies PaymentFieldComponent
 
-      const mockRequest = {
-        server: {
-          plugins: {
-            'forms-engine-plugin': { baseUrl: 'base-url' }
-          }
-        },
-        yar: { set: jest.fn() }
-      } as unknown as FormRequestPayload
+      const mockRequest = mockRequestBase
       const mockH = {
         redirect: jest
           .fn()
@@ -1109,7 +1084,8 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
             formId: 'formid',
             basePath: 'base-path',
             services: mockServices,
-            conditions: {}
+            conditions: {},
+            createTranslator: (lang: string) => model.createTranslator(lang)
           },
           getState: jest.fn().mockResolvedValueOnce({
             $$__referenceNumber: 'ref-123',
@@ -1160,11 +1136,12 @@ describe('PaymentField', () => {
     const paymentField = collection.fields[0] as PaymentField
     paymentField.model = {
       services: mockServices,
-      conditions: {}
+      conditions: {},
+      createTranslator: (lang: string) => model.createTranslator(lang)
     } as unknown as FormModel
 
     it('should return early when resolved amount is 0', async () => {
-      const mockRequest = {} as unknown as FormRequestPayload
+      const mockRequest = mockRequestBase
 
       await paymentField.onSubmit(
         mockRequest,
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/PaymentField.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/PaymentField.ts
index 494995092..5de6a4751 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/PaymentField.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/PaymentField.ts
@@ -11,10 +11,12 @@ import { logger } from '~/src/server/common/helpers/logging/logger.js'
 import { COMPONENT_STATE_ERROR } from '~/src/server/constants.js'
 import { FormComponent } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FormComponent.js'
 import { type PaymentState } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/PaymentField.types.js'
+import { type RenderContext } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
 import {
   createError,
   getPluginOptions
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { type FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/index.js'
 import {
   PaymentErrorTypes,
@@ -28,10 +30,8 @@ import {
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types/index.js'
 import {
   type ErrorMessageTemplateList,
-  type FormPayload,
   type FormState,
   type FormStateValue,
-  type FormSubmissionError,
   type FormSubmissionState,
   type PaymentExternalArgs
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
@@ -39,6 +39,7 @@ import {
   createPaymentService,
   formatCurrency
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/payment/helper.js'
+import { resolveLanguage } from '~/src/server/utils/utils.js'
 
 export class PaymentField extends FormComponent {
   declare options: PaymentFieldComponent['options']
@@ -93,7 +94,10 @@ export class PaymentField extends FormComponent {
     return this.isPaymentState(value) ? value : undefined
   }
 
-  getDisplayStringFromState(state: FormSubmissionState): string {
+  getDisplayStringFromState(
+    state: FormSubmissionState,
+    _translator: Translator
+  ): string {
     const value = this.getPaymentStateFromState(state)
 
     if (!value) {
@@ -103,8 +107,9 @@ export class PaymentField extends FormComponent {
     return `${formatCurrency(value.amount)} - ${value.description}`
   }
 
-  getViewModel(payload: FormPayload, errors?: FormSubmissionError[]) {
-    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+  getViewModel(context: RenderContext) {
+    const { payload } = context
+    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(context)
 
     // Payload is pre-populated from state if a payment has already been made
     const paymentState = this.isPaymentState(payload[this.name] as unknown)
@@ -229,7 +234,8 @@ export class PaymentField extends FormComponent {
   ): Promise<unknown> {
     const { options, name: componentName } = args.component
     const { model } = args.controller
-
+    const language = resolveLanguage(request)
+    const { t } = model.createTranslator(language)
     const state = await args.controller.getState(request)
     const { baseUrl } = getPluginOptions(request.server)
     const summaryUrl = `${baseUrl}/${model.basePath}/summary`
@@ -287,8 +293,8 @@ export class PaymentField extends FormComponent {
 
     if (!payment) {
       const message = isLivePayment
-        ? 'There is a problem and we cannot take a payment. Contact us (details in the footer of this form) or save your progress and return to the form later.'
-        : 'Add a valid test API key before you can preview the payment journey.'
+        ? t('components.paymentField.cannotTakePayment')
+        : t('components.paymentField.testApiKey')
       const govukError = createError(componentName, message)
       request.yar.flash(COMPONENT_STATE_ERROR, govukError, true)
       return h
@@ -320,9 +326,12 @@ export class PaymentField extends FormComponent {
    */
   async onSubmit(
     request: FormRequestPayload,
-    _metadata: FormMetadata,
+    metadata: FormMetadata,
     context: FormContext
   ): Promise<void> {
+    const language = resolveLanguage(request, metadata)
+    const { t } = this.model.createTranslator(language)
+
     // Zero-amount bypass — no capture needed
     const resolvedAmount = PaymentField.resolveAmount(
       this.options,
@@ -338,7 +347,7 @@ export class PaymentField extends FormComponent {
     if (!paymentState) {
       throw new PaymentPreAuthError(
         this,
-        'Complete the payment to continue',
+        t('components.paymentField.completePayment'),
         true,
         PaymentErrorTypes.PaymentIncomplete
       )
@@ -367,7 +376,8 @@ export class PaymentField extends FormComponent {
     PaymentSubmissionError.checkPaymentAmount(
       status.amount,
       resolvedAmount,
-      this
+      this,
+      t
     )
 
     if (status.state.status === 'success') {
@@ -378,7 +388,7 @@ export class PaymentField extends FormComponent {
     if (status.state.status !== 'capturable') {
       throw new PaymentPreAuthError(
         this,
-        'Your payment authorisation has expired. Please add your payment details again.',
+        t('components.paymentField.paymentExpired'),
         true,
         PaymentErrorTypes.PaymentExpired
       )
@@ -392,7 +402,7 @@ export class PaymentField extends FormComponent {
     if (!captured) {
       throw new PaymentPreAuthError(
         this,
-        'There was a problem and your form was not submitted. Try submitting the form again.',
+        t('components.paymentField.submissionFailed'),
         false
       )
     }
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/RadiosField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/RadiosField.test.ts
index 8ccc0ff9f..ef2238009 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/RadiosField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/RadiosField.test.ts
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ import {
   type Field
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import {
   listNumber,
   listNumberExamples,
@@ -17,6 +18,10 @@ import {
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 import { getFormData, getFormState } from '~/test/helpers/component-helpers.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe.each([
   {
     component: {
@@ -174,8 +179,8 @@ describe.each([
         const state1 = getFormState(item.value)
         const state2 = getFormState(null)
 
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, translator)
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, translator)
 
         expect(answer1).toBe(item.text)
         expect(answer2).toBe('')
@@ -233,7 +238,11 @@ describe.each([
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults', () => {
         const item = options.examples[0]
 
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData(item.value))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData(item.value),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -248,7 +257,11 @@ describe.each([
       it.each([...options.examples])(
         'sets Nunjucks component radio items',
         (item) => {
-          const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData(item.value))
+          const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+            payload: getFormData(item.value),
+            errors: undefined,
+            translator: stubTranslator
+          })
 
           expect(viewModel.items?.[0]).not.toMatchObject({
             value: '' // First item is never empty
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/SelectField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/SelectField.test.ts
index 19dad941d..e9d1e6a21 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/SelectField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/SelectField.test.ts
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ import {
   type Field
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import {
   listNumber,
   listNumberExamples,
@@ -17,6 +18,10 @@ import {
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 import { getFormData, getFormState } from '~/test/helpers/component-helpers.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe.each([
   {
     component: {
@@ -175,8 +180,8 @@ describe.each([
         const state1 = getFormState(item.value)
         const state2 = getFormState(null)
 
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, translator)
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, translator)
 
         expect(answer1).toBe(item.text)
         expect(answer2).toBe('')
@@ -233,7 +238,11 @@ describe.each([
     describe('View model', () => {
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults', () => {
         const item = options.examples[0]
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData(item.value))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData(item.value),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -248,7 +257,11 @@ describe.each([
       it.each([...options.examples])(
         'sets Nunjucks component select options',
         (item) => {
-          const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData(item.value))
+          const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+            payload: getFormData(item.value),
+            errors: undefined,
+            translator: stubTranslator
+          })
 
           expect(viewModel.items?.[0]).toMatchObject({
             value: '' // First item is always empty
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/SelectField.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/SelectField.ts
index 2505f5447..175242d44 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/SelectField.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/SelectField.ts
@@ -4,10 +4,7 @@ import {
 } from '@defra/forms-model'
 
 import { ListFormComponent } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/ListFormComponent.js'
-import {
-  type FormPayload,
-  type FormSubmissionError
-} from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
+import { type RenderContext } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
 
 export class SelectField extends ListFormComponent {
   declare options:
@@ -33,8 +30,8 @@ export class SelectField extends ListFormComponent {
     this.options = options
   }
 
-  getViewModel(payload: FormPayload, errors?: FormSubmissionError[]) {
-    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+  getViewModel(context: RenderContext) {
+    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(context)
     let { items } = viewModel
 
     items = [{ value: '' }, ...items]
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/SelectionControlField.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/SelectionControlField.ts
index 1f1070d79..b6f457245 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/SelectionControlField.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/SelectionControlField.ts
@@ -1,20 +1,19 @@
 import { ListFormComponent } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/ListFormComponent.js'
-import { type ListItem } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
-import { messageTemplate } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.js'
 import {
-  type ErrorMessageTemplateList,
-  type FormPayload,
-  type FormSubmissionError
-} from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
+  type ListItem,
+  type RenderContext
+} from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
+import { messageTemplate } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.js'
+import { type ErrorMessageTemplateList } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 
 /**
  * "Selection controls" are checkboxes and radios (and switches), as per Material UI nomenclature.
  */
 export class SelectionControlField extends ListFormComponent {
-  getViewModel(payload: FormPayload, errors?: FormSubmissionError[]) {
+  getViewModel(context: RenderContext) {
     const { options } = this
 
-    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(context)
     let { fieldset, items, label } = viewModel
 
     fieldset ??= {
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/TelephoneNumberField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/TelephoneNumberField.test.ts
index d3cc1b861..9c60f1f82 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/TelephoneNumberField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/TelephoneNumberField.test.ts
@@ -11,9 +11,14 @@ import {
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { INVALID_ERROR_CODE } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/telephone.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 import { getFormData, getFormState } from '~/test/helpers/component-helpers.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe('TelephoneNumberField', () => {
   let model: FormModel
 
@@ -167,8 +172,8 @@ describe('TelephoneNumberField', () => {
         const state1 = getFormState('+447900000000')
         const state2 = getFormState(null)
 
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, translator)
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, translator)
 
         expect(answer1).toBe('+447900000000')
         expect(answer2).toBe('')
@@ -221,9 +226,11 @@ describe('TelephoneNumberField', () => {
 
     describe('View model', () => {
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults', () => {
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(
-          getFormData('Telephone number field')
-        )
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData('Telephone number field'),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/TelephoneNumberField.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/TelephoneNumberField.ts
index 22cafcbb0..31477e790 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/TelephoneNumberField.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/TelephoneNumberField.ts
@@ -7,12 +7,9 @@ import {
   INVALID_ERROR_CODE,
   joi
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/telephone.js'
+import { type RenderContext } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
 import { messageTemplate } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.js'
-import {
-  type ErrorMessageTemplateList,
-  type FormPayload,
-  type FormSubmissionError
-} from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
+import { type ErrorMessageTemplateList } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 
 export class TelephoneNumberField extends FormComponent {
   declare options: TelephoneNumberFieldComponent['options']
@@ -59,8 +56,8 @@ export class TelephoneNumberField extends FormComponent {
     this.options = options
   }
 
-  getViewModel(payload: FormPayload, errors?: FormSubmissionError[]) {
-    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+  getViewModel(context: RenderContext) {
+    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(context)
     const { attributes } = viewModel
 
     attributes.autocomplete = 'tel'
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/TextField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/TextField.test.ts
index 5b2d8a1e2..1223fdbbe 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/TextField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/TextField.test.ts
@@ -6,9 +6,14 @@ import {
   type Field
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 import { getFormData, getFormState } from '~/test/helpers/component-helpers.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe('TextField', () => {
   let model: FormModel
 
@@ -123,6 +128,55 @@ describe('TextField', () => {
         expect(result1.errors).toBeTruthy()
         expect(result2.errors).toBeTruthy()
       })
+
+      it('uses translated shortDescription as #label in validation error when translator provided', () => {
+        const componentId = 'b68df7f1-d4f4-4c17-83c8-402f584906c9'
+        const cyModel = new FormModel(
+          {
+            ...definition,
+            metadata: {
+              language: 'en-GB',
+              translations: {
+                cy: {
+                  components: {
+                    [componentId]: {
+                      title: 'Beth yw eich enw olaf?',
+                      shortDescription: 'Eich enw olaf'
+                    }
+                  },
+                  pages: {},
+                  sections: {},
+                  listItems: {}
+                }
+              }
+            }
+          },
+          { basePath: 'test' }
+        )
+
+        const cyDef: TextFieldComponent = {
+          id: componentId,
+          title: 'What is your last name?',
+          name: 'applicantLastName',
+          shortDescription: 'Your last name',
+          type: ComponentType.TextField,
+          options: { required: true },
+          schema: {}
+        }
+
+        const cyCollection = new ComponentCollection([cyDef], {
+          model: cyModel
+        })
+        const translator = cyModel.createTranslator('cy')
+        const result = cyCollection.validate(
+          { applicantLastName: '' },
+          translator
+        )
+
+        expect(result.errors).toEqual([
+          expect.objectContaining({ text: 'Nodwch eich enw olaf' })
+        ])
+      })
     })
 
     describe('State', () => {
@@ -130,8 +184,8 @@ describe('TextField', () => {
         const state1 = getFormState('Text field')
         const state2 = getFormState(null)
 
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, translator)
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, translator)
 
         expect(answer1).toBe('Text field')
         expect(answer2).toBe('')
@@ -184,7 +238,11 @@ describe('TextField', () => {
 
     describe('View model', () => {
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults', () => {
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData('Text field'))
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: getFormData('Text field'),
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -197,6 +255,82 @@ describe('TextField', () => {
       })
     })
 
+    describe('getViewModel with Translator', () => {
+      it('calls tComponent for the field title', () => {
+        const tComponent = jest.fn().mockReturnValue('Translated title')
+        const t = jest.fn().mockReturnValue('(optional)')
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: {},
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: {
+            t,
+            tComponent,
+            tPage: jest.fn(),
+            tSection: jest.fn(),
+            tListItem: jest.fn(),
+            tForm: jest.fn(),
+            language: 'en-GB'
+          }
+        })
+        expect(tComponent).toHaveBeenCalledWith(field, 'title')
+        expect(viewModel.label.text).toBe('Translated title')
+      })
+
+      it('calls tComponent for the hint when hint is set', () => {
+        const hintDef = { ...def, hint: 'Enter your name' }
+        const hintCollection = new ComponentCollection([hintDef], { model })
+        const hintField = hintCollection.fields[0]
+        const tComponent = jest.fn().mockReturnValue('Translated hint')
+        const t = jest.fn().mockReturnValue('')
+        const viewModel = hintField.getViewModel({
+          payload: {},
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: {
+            t,
+            tComponent,
+            tPage: jest.fn(),
+            tSection: jest.fn(),
+            tListItem: jest.fn(),
+            tForm: jest.fn(),
+            language: 'en-GB'
+          }
+        })
+        expect(tComponent).toHaveBeenCalledWith(hintField, 'hint')
+        expect(viewModel.hint?.text).toBe('Translated hint')
+      })
+
+      it('calls t for common.optional when field is optional', () => {
+        const optDef = { ...def, options: { required: false } }
+        const optCollection = new ComponentCollection([optDef], { model })
+        const optField = optCollection.fields[0]
+        const tComponent = jest.fn().mockReturnValue('Title')
+        const t = jest.fn().mockReturnValue('(optional)')
+        optField.getViewModel({
+          payload: {},
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: {
+            t,
+            tComponent,
+            tPage: jest.fn(),
+            tSection: jest.fn(),
+            tListItem: jest.fn(),
+            tForm: jest.fn(),
+            language: 'en-GB'
+          }
+        })
+        expect(t).toHaveBeenCalledWith('common.optional')
+      })
+
+      it('falls back to English when no translator supplied', () => {
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload: {},
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
+        expect(viewModel.label.text).toBe('Example text field')
+      })
+    })
+
     describe('AllPossibleErrors', () => {
       it('should return errors', () => {
         const errors = field.getAllPossibleErrors()
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/UkAddressField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/UkAddressField.test.ts
index aa5853958..cddc0c5eb 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/UkAddressField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/UkAddressField.test.ts
@@ -12,12 +12,17 @@ import {
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { type ViewModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import {
   type FormPayload,
   type FormState
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe('UkAddressField', () => {
   let model: FormModel
 
@@ -52,35 +57,50 @@ describe('UkAddressField', () => {
         expect(keys).toHaveProperty(
           'myComponent__addressLine1',
           expect.objectContaining({
-            flags: expect.objectContaining({ label: 'Address line 1' })
+            flags: expect.objectContaining({
+              label: 'components.addressField.line1'
+            })
+            // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
           })
         )
 
         expect(keys).toHaveProperty(
           'myComponent__addressLine2',
           expect.objectContaining({
-            flags: expect.objectContaining({ label: 'Address line 2' })
+            flags: expect.objectContaining({
+              label: 'components.addressField.line2'
+            })
+            // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
           })
         )
 
         expect(keys).toHaveProperty(
           'myComponent__town',
           expect.objectContaining({
-            flags: expect.objectContaining({ label: 'Town or city' })
+            flags: expect.objectContaining({
+              label: 'components.addressField.town'
+            })
+            // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
           })
         )
 
         expect(keys).toHaveProperty(
           'myComponent__county',
           expect.objectContaining({
-            flags: expect.objectContaining({ label: 'County' })
+            flags: expect.objectContaining({
+              label: 'components.addressField.county'
+            })
+            // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
           })
         )
 
         expect(keys).toHaveProperty(
           `myComponent__postcode`,
           expect.objectContaining({
-            flags: expect.objectContaining({ label: 'Postcode' })
+            flags: expect.objectContaining({
+              label: 'components.addressField.postcode'
+            })
+            // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
           })
         )
       })
@@ -244,13 +264,16 @@ describe('UkAddressField', () => {
 
         expect(result.errors).toEqual([
           expect.objectContaining({
-            text: 'Enter address line 1'
+            text: 'Enter components.addressField.line1'
+            // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
           }),
           expect.objectContaining({
-            text: 'Enter town or city'
+            text: 'Enter components.addressField.town'
+            // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
           }),
           expect.objectContaining({
-            text: 'Enter postcode'
+            text: 'Enter components.addressField.postcode'
+            // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
           })
         ])
       })
@@ -332,8 +355,8 @@ describe('UkAddressField', () => {
         const state1 = getFormState(address)
         const state2 = getFormState({})
 
-        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
+        const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, translator)
+        const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, translator)
 
         expect(answer1).toBe(
           'Richard Fairclough House<br>Knutsford Road<br>Warrington<br>Cheshire<br>WA4 1HT<br>'
@@ -405,7 +428,11 @@ describe('UkAddressField', () => {
 
       it('sets Nunjucks component defaults', () => {
         const payload = getFormData(address)
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload)
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload,
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({
@@ -417,6 +444,7 @@ describe('UkAddressField', () => {
               expect.objectContaining({
                 model: getViewModel(address, 'addressLine1', {
                   label: { text: 'Address line 1' },
+                  // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                   attributes: { autocomplete: 'address-line1' }
                 })
               }),
@@ -424,6 +452,7 @@ describe('UkAddressField', () => {
               expect.objectContaining({
                 model: getViewModel(address, 'addressLine2', {
                   label: { text: 'Address line 2 (optional)' },
+                  // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                   attributes: { autocomplete: 'address-line2' },
                   value: address.addressLine2
                 })
@@ -432,6 +461,7 @@ describe('UkAddressField', () => {
               expect.objectContaining({
                 model: getViewModel(address, 'town', {
                   label: { text: 'Town or city' },
+                  // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                   classes: 'govuk-!-width-two-thirds',
                   attributes: { autocomplete: 'address-level2' },
                   value: address.town
@@ -441,6 +471,7 @@ describe('UkAddressField', () => {
               expect.objectContaining({
                 model: getViewModel(address, 'county', {
                   label: { text: 'County (optional)' },
+                  // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                   attributes: { autocomplete: 'address-level1' },
                   value: address.county
                 })
@@ -449,6 +480,7 @@ describe('UkAddressField', () => {
               expect.objectContaining({
                 model: getViewModel(address, 'postcode', {
                   label: { text: 'Postcode' },
+                  // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                   classes: 'govuk-input--width-10',
                   attributes: { autocomplete: 'postal-code' },
                   value: address.postcode
@@ -461,7 +493,11 @@ describe('UkAddressField', () => {
 
       it('sets Nunjucks component fieldset', () => {
         const payload = getFormData(address)
-        const viewModel = field.getViewModel(payload)
+        const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+          payload,
+          errors: undefined,
+          translator: stubTranslator
+        })
 
         expect(viewModel.fieldset).toEqual({
           legend: {
@@ -479,6 +515,20 @@ describe('UkAddressField', () => {
         expect(errors.advancedSettingsErrors).toBeEmpty()
       })
     })
+
+    describe('sub-field title key constants', () => {
+      it('stores sub-field titles as i18next key constants', () => {
+        const addrField = collection.fields[0] as UkAddressField
+        const subFields = addrField.collection.fields
+
+        expect(subFields[0].title).toBe('components.addressField.uprn')
+        expect(subFields[1].title).toBe('components.addressField.line1')
+        expect(subFields[2].title).toBe('components.addressField.line2')
+        expect(subFields[3].title).toBe('components.addressField.town')
+        expect(subFields[4].title).toBe('components.addressField.county')
+        expect(subFields[5].title).toBe('components.addressField.postcode')
+      })
+    })
   })
 
   describe('Validation', () => {
@@ -588,7 +638,8 @@ describe('UkAddressField', () => {
               }),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Address line 1 must be 100 characters or less'
+                  text: 'components.addressField.line1 must be 100 characters or less'
+                  // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                 })
               ]
             }
@@ -613,7 +664,8 @@ describe('UkAddressField', () => {
               }),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Address line 2 must be 100 characters or less'
+                  text: 'components.addressField.line2 must be 100 characters or less'
+                  // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                 })
               ]
             }
@@ -638,7 +690,8 @@ describe('UkAddressField', () => {
               }),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Town or city must be 100 characters or less'
+                  text: 'components.addressField.town must be 100 characters or less'
+                  // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                 })
               ]
             }
@@ -663,7 +716,8 @@ describe('UkAddressField', () => {
               }),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'County must be 100 characters or less'
+                  text: 'components.addressField.county must be 100 characters or less'
+                  // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                 })
               ]
             }
@@ -688,7 +742,8 @@ describe('UkAddressField', () => {
               }),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Enter a valid postcode'
+                  text: 'Enter a valid components.addressField.postcode'
+                  // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                 })
               ]
             }
@@ -713,13 +768,16 @@ describe('UkAddressField', () => {
               }),
               errors: [
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Enter address line 1'
+                  text: 'Enter components.addressField.line1'
+                  // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                 }),
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Enter town or city'
+                  text: 'Enter components.addressField.town'
+                  // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                 }),
                 expect.objectContaining({
-                  text: 'Enter a valid postcode'
+                  text: 'Enter a valid components.addressField.postcode'
+                  // Sub-field title is a key constant; resolved at request time (Task 8/9).
                 })
               ]
             }
@@ -739,7 +797,7 @@ describe('UkAddressField', () => {
           const result = collection.validate(input)
           expect(result).toEqual(output)
 
-          const errors = collection.getErrors(result.errors)
+          const errors = collection.getErrors(translator, result.errors)
           expect(errors).toEqual(output.errors)
         }
       )
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/UkAddressField.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/UkAddressField.ts
index 5b27d9b37..598185ae4 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/UkAddressField.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/UkAddressField.ts
@@ -8,7 +8,8 @@ import {
   isFormState
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FormComponent.js'
 import { TextField } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/TextField.js'
-import { type QuestionPageController } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/QuestionPageController.js'
+import { type RenderContext } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import {
   type FormRequestPayload,
   type FormResponseToolkit
@@ -23,6 +24,7 @@ import {
   type PostcodeLookupExternalArgs
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 import { dispatch } from '~/src/server/plugins/postcode-lookup/routes/index.js'
+import { resolveLanguage } from '~/src/server/utils/utils.js'
 
 export class UkAddressField extends FormComponent {
   declare options: UkAddressFieldComponent['options']
@@ -41,13 +43,12 @@ export class UkAddressField extends FormComponent {
     const isRequired = options.required !== false
     const hideOptional = !!options.optionalText
     const hideTitle = !!options.hideTitle
-
     this.collection = new ComponentCollection(
       [
         {
           type: ComponentType.TextField,
           name: `${name}__uprn`,
-          title: 'UPRN',
+          title: 'components.addressField.uprn',
           schema: {},
           options: {
             required: false,
@@ -57,7 +58,7 @@ export class UkAddressField extends FormComponent {
         {
           type: ComponentType.TextField,
           name: `${name}__addressLine1`,
-          title: 'Address line 1',
+          title: 'components.addressField.line1',
           schema: { max: 100 },
           options: {
             autocomplete: 'address-line1',
@@ -68,7 +69,7 @@ export class UkAddressField extends FormComponent {
         {
           type: ComponentType.TextField,
           name: `${name}__addressLine2`,
-          title: 'Address line 2',
+          title: 'components.addressField.line2',
           schema: { max: 100 },
           options: {
             autocomplete: 'address-line2',
@@ -79,7 +80,7 @@ export class UkAddressField extends FormComponent {
         {
           type: ComponentType.TextField,
           name: `${name}__town`,
-          title: 'Town or city',
+          title: 'components.addressField.town',
           schema: { max: 100 },
           options: {
             autocomplete: 'address-level2',
@@ -91,7 +92,7 @@ export class UkAddressField extends FormComponent {
         {
           type: ComponentType.TextField,
           name: `${name}__county`,
-          title: 'County',
+          title: 'components.addressField.county',
           schema: { max: 100 },
           options: {
             autocomplete: 'address-level1',
@@ -102,7 +103,7 @@ export class UkAddressField extends FormComponent {
         {
           type: ComponentType.TextField,
           name: `${name}__postcode`,
-          title: 'Postcode',
+          title: 'components.addressField.postcode',
           schema: {
             regex: '^[a-zA-Z]{1,2}\\d[a-zA-Z\\d]?\\s?\\d[a-zA-Z]{2}$'
           },
@@ -143,23 +144,32 @@ export class UkAddressField extends FormComponent {
     return this.getContextValueFromFormValue(value)
   }
 
-  getDisplayStringFromFormValue(value: UkAddressState | undefined): string {
+  getDisplayStringFromFormValue(
+    value: UkAddressState | undefined,
+    _translator: Translator
+  ): string {
     return this.getContextValueFromFormValue(value)?.join(', ') ?? ''
   }
 
-  getDisplayStringFromState(state: FormSubmissionState) {
+  getDisplayStringFromState(
+    state: FormSubmissionState,
+    translator: Translator
+  ) {
     const value = this.getFormValueFromState(state)
 
-    return this.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(value)
+    return this.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(value, translator)
   }
 
   /**
    * Returns one error per child field
    */
   getViewErrors(
+    translator: Translator,
     errors?: FormSubmissionError[]
   ): FormSubmissionError[] | undefined {
-    const uniqueErrors = this.getErrors(errors)?.filter(
+    const { t } = translator
+
+    const uniqueErrors = this.getErrors(translator, errors)?.filter(
       (error, index, self) =>
         index === self.findIndex((err) => err.name === error.name)
     )
@@ -174,7 +184,9 @@ export class UkAddressField extends FormComponent {
           name,
           path: [name],
           href: `#${name}`,
-          text: `Enter ${lowerFirst(label)}`
+          text: t('components.addressField.enterAddress', {
+            shortDescription: lowerFirst(label)
+          })
         }
       ]
     }
@@ -182,10 +194,11 @@ export class UkAddressField extends FormComponent {
     return uniqueErrors
   }
 
-  getViewModel(payload: FormPayload, errors?: FormSubmissionError[]) {
+  getViewModel(context: RenderContext) {
+    const { payload, translator } = context
     const { collection, name, options } = this
 
-    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(context)
     let { fieldset, hint, label } = viewModel
 
     fieldset ??= {
@@ -209,7 +222,7 @@ export class UkAddressField extends FormComponent {
       }
     }
 
-    const components = collection.getViewModel(payload, errors)
+    const components = collection.getViewModel(context)
 
     // Hide UPRN
     const uprn = components.at(0)
@@ -224,7 +237,7 @@ export class UkAddressField extends FormComponent {
     const usePostcodeLookup = this.shouldUsePostcodeLookup()
 
     const value = usePostcodeLookup
-      ? this.getDisplayStringFromState(payload)
+      ? this.getDisplayStringFromState(payload, translator)
       : undefined
 
     return {
@@ -284,6 +297,7 @@ export class UkAddressField extends FormComponent {
     args: PostcodeLookupExternalArgs
   ) {
     const { controller, component } = args
+    const language = resolveLanguage(request)
 
     return dispatch(request, h, {
       formName: controller.model.name,
@@ -291,7 +305,8 @@ export class UkAddressField extends FormComponent {
       componentHint: component.hint,
       componentTitle: component.title || controller.title,
       step: args.actionArgs.step,
-      sourceUrl: args.sourceUrl
+      sourceUrl: args.sourceUrl,
+      language
     })
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/YesNoField.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/YesNoField.test.ts
index 1178c9f7a..279222c33 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/YesNoField.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/YesNoField.test.ts
@@ -6,10 +6,15 @@ import {
   type Field
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import { listYesNoExamples } from '~/test/fixtures/list.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 import { getFormData, getFormState } from '~/test/helpers/component-helpers.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe('YesNoField', () => {
   let def: YesNoFieldComponent
   let model: FormModel
@@ -143,9 +148,9 @@ describe('YesNoField', () => {
       const state2 = getFormState(false)
       const state3 = getFormState(null)
 
-      const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1)
-      const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2)
-      const answer3 = getAnswer(field, state3)
+      const answer1 = getAnswer(field, state1, translator)
+      const answer2 = getAnswer(field, state2, translator)
+      const answer3 = getAnswer(field, state3, translator)
 
       expect(answer1).toBe('Yes')
       expect(answer2).toBe('No')
@@ -215,7 +220,11 @@ describe('YesNoField', () => {
     it('sets Nunjucks component defaults', () => {
       const item = items[0]
 
-      const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData(item.value))
+      const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+        payload: getFormData(item.value),
+        errors: undefined,
+        translator: stubTranslator
+      })
 
       expect(viewModel).toEqual(
         expect.objectContaining({
@@ -228,7 +237,11 @@ describe('YesNoField', () => {
     })
 
     it.each([...items])('sets Nunjucks component radio items', (item) => {
-      const viewModel = field.getViewModel(getFormData(item.value))
+      const viewModel = field.getViewModel({
+        payload: getFormData(item.value),
+        errors: undefined,
+        translator: stubTranslator
+      })
 
       expect(viewModel.items?.[0]).not.toMatchObject({
         value: '' // First item is never empty
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/YesNoField.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/YesNoField.ts
index 598253d75..dca2d2e4e 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/YesNoField.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/YesNoField.ts
@@ -4,9 +4,12 @@ import {
   yesNoListName,
   type YesNoFieldComponent
 } from '@defra/forms-model'
+import { type LanguageMessages } from 'joi'
 
 import { SelectionControlField } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/SelectionControlField.js'
 import { addClassOptionIfNone } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/index.js'
+import { buildValidationMessages } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/buildValidationMessages.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { messageTemplate } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.js'
 import { type ErrorMessageTemplateList } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 import { convertToLanguageMessages } from '~/src/server/utils/type-utils.js'
@@ -52,6 +55,13 @@ export class YesNoField extends SelectionControlField {
     this.options = options
   }
 
+  getValidationMessagesOverride(translator: Translator): LanguageMessages {
+    const { selectYesNoRequired } = buildValidationMessages(translator.t)
+    return convertToLanguageMessages({
+      'any.required': selectYesNoRequired
+    })
+  }
+
   /**
    * For error preview page that shows all possible errors on a component
    */
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/constants.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/constants.ts
deleted file mode 100644
index f7b9ac7c7..000000000
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/constants.ts
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1 +0,0 @@
-export const optionalText = ' (optional)'
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.test.ts
index 87ae55e43..f0a2a20a9 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.test.ts
@@ -22,8 +22,13 @@ import {
   OsGridRefField
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/index.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/blank.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe('Location field formatting', () => {
   let model: FormModel
 
@@ -52,7 +57,9 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         locationEN__northing: 654321
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'email' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, {
+        format: 'email'
+      })
       expect(answer).toBe('Easting: 123456\nNorthing: 654321\n')
     })
 
@@ -62,7 +69,7 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         locationEN__northing: 654321
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'data' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, { format: 'data' })
       expect(answer).toBe('Easting: 123456\nNorthing: 654321')
     })
 
@@ -72,7 +79,9 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         locationEN__northing: 654321
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'summary' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, {
+        format: 'summary'
+      })
       // Should render as HTML from markdown
       expect(answer).toContain('Easting: 123456')
       expect(answer).toContain('Northing: 654321')
@@ -81,7 +90,9 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
     it('returns empty string when no values', () => {
       const state = {}
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'email' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, {
+        format: 'email'
+      })
       expect(answer).toBe('')
     })
   })
@@ -105,7 +116,9 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         locationLL__longitude: -0.127758
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'email' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, {
+        format: 'email'
+      })
       expect(answer).toBe('Latitude: 51.51945\nLongitude: -0.127758\n')
     })
 
@@ -115,7 +128,7 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         locationLL__longitude: -0.127758
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'data' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, { format: 'data' })
       expect(answer).toBe('Latitude: 51.51945\nLongitude: -0.127758')
     })
 
@@ -125,7 +138,9 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         locationLL__longitude: -0.127758
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'summary' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, {
+        format: 'summary'
+      })
       // Should render as HTML from markdown
       expect(answer).toContain('Latitude: 51.51945')
       expect(answer).toContain('Longitude: -0.127758')
@@ -134,7 +149,9 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
     it('returns empty string when no values', () => {
       const state = {}
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'email' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, {
+        format: 'email'
+      })
       expect(answer).toBe('')
     })
   })
@@ -157,7 +174,9 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         gridRef: 'TQ123456'
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'email' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, {
+        format: 'email'
+      })
       expect(answer).toBe('TQ123456\n')
     })
 
@@ -166,7 +185,7 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         gridRef: 'TQ123456'
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'data' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, { format: 'data' })
       expect(answer).toBe('TQ123456')
     })
 
@@ -175,7 +194,9 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         gridRef: 'TQ123456'
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'summary' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, {
+        format: 'summary'
+      })
       expect(answer).toBe('TQ123456')
     })
   })
@@ -198,7 +219,9 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         ngField: 'NG12345678'
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'email' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, {
+        format: 'email'
+      })
       expect(answer).toBe('NG12345678\n')
     })
 
@@ -207,7 +230,7 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         ngField: 'NG12345678'
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'data' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, { format: 'data' })
       expect(answer).toBe('NG12345678')
     })
 
@@ -216,7 +239,9 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         ngField: 'NG12345678'
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'summary' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, {
+        format: 'summary'
+      })
       expect(answer).toBe('NG12345678')
     })
   })
@@ -239,7 +264,9 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         geoField: validState
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'email' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, {
+        format: 'email'
+      })
       expect(answer).toBe('Added 4 locations\n')
     })
 
@@ -248,7 +275,7 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         geoField: validState
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'data' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, { format: 'data' })
       expect(answer).toBe('a,b,c,d')
     })
 
@@ -257,7 +284,9 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         geoField: validState
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'summary' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, {
+        format: 'summary'
+      })
       expect(answer).toBe('Added 4 locations')
     })
   })
@@ -281,7 +310,9 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         declField: true
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'email' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, {
+        format: 'email'
+      })
       expect(answer).toBe('I understand and agree\n')
     })
 
@@ -290,7 +321,9 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         declField: false
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'email' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, {
+        format: 'email'
+      })
       expect(answer).toBe('Not provided\n')
     })
 
@@ -299,7 +332,7 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         declField: true
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'data' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, { format: 'data' })
       expect(answer).toBe('true')
     })
 
@@ -308,14 +341,14 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         declField: false
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'data' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, { format: 'data' })
       expect(answer).toBe('false')
     })
 
     it('formats for data output when no value', () => {
       const state = {}
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'data' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, { format: 'data' })
       expect(answer).toBe('false')
     })
 
@@ -324,7 +357,9 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         declField: true
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'summary' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, {
+        format: 'summary'
+      })
       expect(answer).toBe('I understand and agree')
     })
 
@@ -333,14 +368,18 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         declField: false
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'summary' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, {
+        format: 'summary'
+      })
       expect(answer).toBe('Not provided')
     })
 
     it('formats for summary display when no value', () => {
       const state = {}
 
-      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, { format: 'summary' })
+      const answer = getAnswer(field, state, stubTranslator, {
+        format: 'summary'
+      })
       expect(answer).toBe('Not provided')
     })
   })
@@ -359,7 +398,9 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         locationEN__northing: 654321
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswerMarkdown(field, state, { format: 'email' })
+      const answer = getAnswerMarkdown(field, state, translator, {
+        format: 'email'
+      })
       expect(answer).toBe('Easting: 123456\nNorthing: 654321\n')
     })
 
@@ -376,7 +417,9 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         locationLL__longitude: -0.127758
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswerMarkdown(field, state, { format: 'email' })
+      const answer = getAnswerMarkdown(field, state, translator, {
+        format: 'email'
+      })
       expect(answer).toBe('Latitude: 51.51945\nLongitude: -0.127758\n')
     })
 
@@ -392,7 +435,9 @@ describe('Location field formatting', () => {
         gridRef: 'TQ123456'
       }
 
-      const answer = getAnswerMarkdown(field, state, { format: 'email' })
+      const answer = getAnswerMarkdown(field, state, translator, {
+        format: 'email'
+      })
       expect(answer).toBe('TQ123456\n')
     })
   })
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.ts
index fbda7be88..9d62de2ed 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.ts
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ import { ListFormComponent } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/ListFo
 import { escapeMarkdown } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/index.js'
 import * as Components from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/index.js'
 import { markdown } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/markdownParser.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { type FormState } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 
 // All component instances
@@ -221,6 +222,7 @@ export function createComponent(
 export function getAnswer(
   field: Field,
   state: FormState,
+  translator: Translator,
   options: {
     format:
       | 'data' // Submission data
@@ -230,7 +232,7 @@ export function getAnswer(
 ) {
   // Use escaped display text for GOV.UK Notify emails
   if (options.format === 'email') {
-    return getAnswerMarkdown(field, state, { format: 'email' })
+    return getAnswerMarkdown(field, state, translator, { format: 'email' })
   }
 
   // Use context value for submission data
@@ -248,12 +250,15 @@ export function getAnswer(
     field instanceof Components.LatLongField
   ) {
     return markdown
-      .parse(getAnswerMarkdown(field, state), { async: false })
+      .parse(
+        getAnswerMarkdown(field, state, translator, { format: 'summary' }),
+        { async: false }
+      )
       .trim()
   }
 
   // Use display text for check answers summary (single line)
-  return field.getDisplayStringFromState(state)
+  return field.getDisplayStringFromState(state, translator)
 }
 
 /**
@@ -262,13 +267,14 @@ export function getAnswer(
 export function getAnswerMarkdown(
   field: Field,
   state: FormState,
+  translator: Translator,
   options: {
     format:
       | 'email' // GOV.UK Notify emails
       | 'summary' // Check answers summary
   } = { format: 'summary' }
 ) {
-  const answer = field.getDisplayStringFromState(state)
+  const answer = field.getDisplayStringFromState(state, translator)
 
   // Use escaped display text
   let answerEscaped = `${escapeMarkdown(answer)}\n`
@@ -305,7 +311,8 @@ export function getAnswerMarkdown(
     // Append bullet points
     answerEscaped += items
       .map((item) => {
-        const label = escapeMarkdown(item.text)
+        const resolvedText = translator.tListItem(item, 'text') || item.text
+        const label = escapeMarkdown(resolvedText)
         const value = escapeMarkdown(`(${item.value})`)
 
         let line = label
@@ -344,7 +351,7 @@ export function getAnswerMarkdown(
     answerEscaped = contextValue ? `${contextValue}\n` : ''
   } else if (field instanceof Components.GeospatialField) {
     const features = field.getFormValueFromState(state)
-    const value = field.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(features)
+    const value = field.getDisplayStringFromFormValue(features, translator)
 
     answerEscaped = value ? `${value}\n` : ''
   }
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.ts
index 84c1b07a0..574e858a0 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.ts
@@ -1,11 +1,20 @@
 import { type ComponentType, type Item } from '@defra/forms-model'
 
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import {
+  type FormPayload,
   type FormSubmissionError,
   type FormValue,
   type SummaryList
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 
+export interface RenderContext {
+  payload: FormPayload
+  errors: FormSubmissionError[] | undefined
+  translator: Translator
+  isForceAccess?: boolean
+}
+
 export type ComponentText = {
   classes?: string
   attributes?: string | Record<string, string>
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/configureEnginePlugin.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/configureEnginePlugin.ts
index 127c57258..132bc617c 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/configureEnginePlugin.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/configureEnginePlugin.ts
@@ -1,13 +1,16 @@
 import { join, parse } from 'node:path'
 
-import { type FormDefinition } from '@defra/forms-model'
+import { type FormDefinition, type FormMetadata } from '@defra/forms-model'
 
 import { FORM_PREFIX } from '~/src/server/constants.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
 import { plugin } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/plugin.js'
 import * as defaultServices from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/services/index.js'
 import { formsService } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/services/localFormsService.js'
-import { type PluginOptions } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
+import {
+  type AnyFormRequest,
+  type PluginOptions
+} from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 import { findPackageRoot } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/vision.js'
 import { devtoolContext } from '~/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/context.js'
 import { type CacheService } from '~/src/server/services/cacheService.js'
@@ -67,7 +70,15 @@ export const configureEnginePlugin = async (
       baseUrl: 'http://localhost:3009', // always runs locally
       saveAndExit,
       ordnanceSurveyApiKey,
-      ordnanceSurveyApiSecret
+      ordnanceSurveyApiSecret,
+      getLanguage: (request: AnyFormRequest, metadata?: FormMetadata) => {
+        if ('language' in request.query) {
+          request.yar.set('language', request.query.language)
+        }
+
+        // @ts-expect-error - 'language' does not yet exist on FormMetadata
+        return request.yar.get('language') ?? metadata?.language ?? 'en-GB'
+      }
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/form-context.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/form-context.test.ts
index c6f4aa340..79428d14f 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/form-context.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/form-context.test.ts
@@ -68,7 +68,7 @@ const {
 
 describe('getFormContext helper', () => {
   const request = {
-    yar: { set: jest.fn() } as unknown as Request['yar'],
+    yar: { set: jest.fn(), get: jest.fn() } as unknown as Request['yar'],
     server: {
       app: {},
       realm: { modifiers: { route: { prefix: '' } } }
@@ -85,11 +85,14 @@ describe('getFormContext helper', () => {
     notificationEmail: 'test@example.com'
   }
   const definition = { pages: [] }
-  let formModel: { getFormContext: jest.Mock }
+  let formModel: { getFormContext: jest.Mock; createTranslator: jest.Mock }
 
   beforeEach(() => {
     jest.clearAllMocks()
-    formModel = { getFormContext: jest.fn().mockResolvedValue(returnedContext) }
+    formModel = {
+      getFormContext: jest.fn().mockResolvedValue(returnedContext),
+      createTranslator: jest.fn().mockReturnValue({})
+    }
     FormModel.mockImplementation(
       (_definition: unknown, modelOptions: FormModelOptions) =>
         Object.assign(formModel, { basePath: modelOptions.basePath })
@@ -131,10 +134,14 @@ describe('getFormContext helper', () => {
       'https://form-context.local/preview/live/tb-origin/summary'
     )
 
+    const translator = formModel.createTranslator.mock.results[0].value
+
+    expect(formModel.createTranslator).toHaveBeenCalledWith('en-GB')
     expect(formModel.getFormContext).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
       summaryRequest,
       expect.objectContaining({ $$__referenceNumber: 'CACHED-REF' }),
-      errors
+      errors,
+      translator
     )
     expect(context).toBe(returnedContext)
   })
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/form-context.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/form-context.ts
index c3c4f4786..579f08077 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/form-context.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/form-context.ts
@@ -36,6 +36,7 @@ export interface FormModelOptions {
 
 export interface FormContextOptions extends FormModelOptions {
   errors?: FormSubmissionError[]
+  language?: string
 }
 
 type SummaryRequest = FormContextRequest & {
@@ -119,10 +120,15 @@ export async function getFormContext(
     $$__referenceNumber: cachedState.$$__referenceNumber
   } as unknown as FormSubmissionState
 
+  const language =
+    (yar.get('language') as string | undefined) ?? options.language ?? 'en-GB'
+  const translator = formModel.createTranslator(language)
+
   return formModel.getFormContext(
     summaryRequest,
     formState,
-    options.errors ?? []
+    options.errors ?? [],
+    translator
   )
 }
 
@@ -148,7 +154,6 @@ export async function resolveFormModel(
   }
 
   // The models cache is created lazily per server instance
-
   server.app.models ??= new Map<string, { model: FormModel; updatedAt: Date }>()
 
   const cache = server.app.models
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.test.ts
index b75d0f537..588c97b94 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.test.ts
@@ -545,7 +545,9 @@ describe('Helpers', () => {
         componentDefMap: model.componentDefMap,
         pageMap: model.pageMap,
         componentMap: model.componentMap,
-        referenceNumber: 'foobar'
+        referenceNumber: 'foobar',
+        translator: model.createTranslator(),
+        languages: []
       }
     })
 
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.ts
index 3be9f98bd..9c103576b 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.ts
@@ -109,7 +109,11 @@ engine.registerFilter('answer', function (name: string) {
     return
   }
 
-  const answer = getAnswer(component as Field, globals.context.relevantState)
+  const field = component as Field
+  const translator = field.model.createTranslator()
+  const answer = getAnswer(field, globals.context.relevantState, translator, {
+    format: 'summary'
+  })
 
   return answer
 })
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/buildValidationMessages.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/buildValidationMessages.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..3dc693c25
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/buildValidationMessages.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+import joi from 'joi'
+
+import { buildValidationMessages } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/buildValidationMessages.js'
+import { t } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/index.js'
+
+describe('buildValidationMessages', () => {
+  const tEnGB = (key: string) => t(key, 'en-GB')
+  const messages = buildValidationMessages(tEnGB)
+
+  it('required is a JoiExpression resolving to the correct template', () => {
+    const schema = joi
+      .string()
+      .label('Full name')
+      .messages({
+        'string.empty': messages.required as unknown as string
+      })
+    const { error } = schema.validate('')
+    expect(error?.details[0].message).toBe('Enter full name')
+  })
+
+  it('max is a plain string template', () => {
+    expect(messages.max).toBe(
+      '{{#label}} must be {{#limit}} characters or less'
+    )
+  })
+
+  it('dateFormat is a plain string template', () => {
+    expect(messages.dateFormat).toBe('{{#title}} must be a real date')
+  })
+
+  it('declarationRequired is a JoiExpression', () => {
+    expect(typeof messages.declarationRequired).toBe('object')
+  })
+
+  it('produces the same keys as the original messageTemplate', () => {
+    const expectedKeys = [
+      'required',
+      'selectRequired',
+      'selectYesNoRequired',
+      'pattern',
+      'format',
+      'declarationRequired',
+      'objectRequired',
+      'objectMissing',
+      'max',
+      'min',
+      'minMax',
+      'number',
+      'numberPrecision',
+      'numberInteger',
+      'numberMin',
+      'numberMax',
+      'maxWords',
+      'dateFormat',
+      'dateMin',
+      'dateMax'
+    ]
+    expect(Object.keys(messages)).toEqual(expect.arrayContaining(expectedKeys))
+  })
+})
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/buildValidationMessages.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/buildValidationMessages.ts
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..f31505615
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/buildValidationMessages.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+import joi, { type JoiExpression, type ReferenceOptions } from 'joi'
+
+import { lowerFirstPreserveProperNouns } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/index.js'
+
+const opts = {
+  functions: {
+    lowerFirst: lowerFirstPreserveProperNouns
+  }
+} as ReferenceOptions
+
+/**
+ * Builds a set of translated Joi message templates for a given language.
+ * Called once per FormModel at construction time.
+ *
+ * Strings containing {{lowerFirst(#label)}} must be wrapped in joi.expression()
+ * because Joi cannot resolve custom functions from a plain string.
+ * Plain strings with only built-in tokens ({{#label}}, {{#limit}}) work without wrapping.
+ */
+export function buildValidationMessages(t: (key: string) => string) {
+  return {
+    // Expressions — contain lowerFirst custom function
+    required: joi.expression(t('validation.required'), opts) as JoiExpression,
+    selectRequired: joi.expression(
+      t('validation.selectRequired'),
+      opts
+    ) as JoiExpression,
+    pattern: joi.expression(t('validation.pattern'), opts) as JoiExpression,
+    format: joi.expression(t('validation.format'), opts) as JoiExpression,
+    declarationRequired: joi.expression(
+      t('components.declarationField.validation.declarationRequired'),
+      opts
+    ) as JoiExpression,
+    objectRequired: joi.expression(
+      t('validation.objectRequired'),
+      opts
+    ) as JoiExpression,
+    objectMissing: joi.expression(
+      t('validation.objectMissing'),
+      opts
+    ) as JoiExpression,
+
+    // Plain Joi template strings — no lowerFirst
+    selectYesNoRequired: t(
+      'components.yesNoField.validation.selectYesNoRequired'
+    ),
+    max: t('validation.max'),
+    min: t('validation.min'),
+    minMax: t('validation.minMax'),
+    number: t('validation.number'),
+    numberPrecision: t('validation.numberPrecision'),
+    numberInteger: t('validation.numberInteger'),
+    numberMin: t('validation.numberMin'),
+    numberMax: t('validation.numberMax'),
+    maxWords: t('validation.maxWords'),
+    dateFormat: t('components.dateField.validation.dateFormat'),
+    dateMin: t('components.dateField.validation.dateMin'),
+    dateMax: t('components.dateField.validation.dateMax'),
+
+    unicode: 'validation.unicode',
+    arrayMin: 'validation.array.min',
+    arrayMax: 'validation.array.max',
+    arrayLength: 'validation.array.length',
+    featuresMin: 'validation.features.min',
+    featuresMax: 'validation.features.max',
+    featuresLength: 'validation.features.length'
+  }
+}
+
+export type ValidationMessages = ReturnType<typeof buildValidationMessages>
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/extractBaseTranslations.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/extractBaseTranslations.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..cfe18ed14
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/extractBaseTranslations.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,110 @@
+import {
+  ComponentType,
+  SchemaVersion,
+  type FormDefinition
+} from '@defra/forms-model'
+
+import { extractBaseTranslations } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/extractBaseTranslations.js'
+
+const pageId = 'b2c3d4e5-0001-0000-0000-000000000000'
+const componentId = 'c3d4e5f6-0001-0000-0000-000000000000'
+const sectionId = 'a1b2c3d4-0001-0000-0000-000000000000'
+const listItemId = 'e5f6a7b8-0001-0000-0000-000000000000'
+
+const def = {
+  schema: SchemaVersion.V2,
+  engine: 'V2' as const,
+  name: 'Test form',
+  pages: [
+    {
+      id: pageId,
+      path: '/personal-details',
+      title: 'Your personal details',
+      section: sectionId,
+      components: [
+        {
+          id: componentId,
+          type: ComponentType.TextField,
+          name: 'firstName',
+          title: 'First name',
+          hint: 'As it appears on your licence',
+          shortDescription: 'Name',
+          schema: {},
+          options: {}
+        }
+      ]
+    }
+  ],
+  lists: [
+    {
+      id: 'listId',
+      name: 'duration',
+      title: 'Duration',
+      type: 'string' as const,
+      items: [{ id: listItemId, text: '1 day', value: '1' }]
+    }
+  ],
+  sections: [
+    {
+      id: sectionId,
+      name: 'personal',
+      title: 'Personal details',
+      hideTitle: false
+    }
+  ],
+  conditions: [],
+  startPage: '/personal-details'
+} as unknown as FormDefinition
+
+describe('extractBaseTranslations', () => {
+  it('extracts page titles', () => {
+    const result = extractBaseTranslations(def)
+    expect(result.pages[pageId]).toEqual({ title: 'Your personal details' })
+  })
+
+  it('extracts component title, hint and shortDescription', () => {
+    const result = extractBaseTranslations(def)
+    expect(result.components[componentId]).toEqual({
+      title: 'First name',
+      hint: 'As it appears on your licence',
+      shortDescription: 'Name'
+    })
+  })
+
+  it('extracts section titles', () => {
+    const result = extractBaseTranslations(def)
+    expect(result.sections[sectionId]).toEqual({ title: 'Personal details' })
+  })
+
+  it('extracts list item text', () => {
+    const result = extractBaseTranslations(def)
+    expect(result.listItems[listItemId]).toEqual({ text: '1 day' })
+  })
+
+  it('skips pages without an id', () => {
+    const defNoId = {
+      ...def,
+      pages: [{ ...def.pages[0], id: undefined }]
+    } as unknown as FormDefinition
+    const result = extractBaseTranslations(defNoId)
+    expect(Object.keys(result.pages)).toHaveLength(0)
+  })
+
+  it('skips components without an id', () => {
+    interface PageWithComponents {
+      components: Record<string, unknown>[]
+    }
+    const firstPage = def.pages[0] as unknown as PageWithComponents
+    const defNoId = {
+      ...def,
+      pages: [
+        {
+          ...def.pages[0],
+          components: [{ ...firstPage.components[0], id: undefined }]
+        }
+      ]
+    } as unknown as FormDefinition
+    const result = extractBaseTranslations(defNoId)
+    expect(Object.keys(result.components)).toHaveLength(0)
+  })
+})
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/extractBaseTranslations.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/extractBaseTranslations.ts
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..529348409
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/extractBaseTranslations.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+import {
+  hasComponentsEvenIfNoNext,
+  type FormDefinition
+} from '@defra/forms-model'
+
+import { type FormDefinitionTranslations } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
+
+type BaseTranslations = FormDefinitionTranslations[string]
+
+export function extractBaseTranslations(def: FormDefinition): BaseTranslations {
+  const pages: BaseTranslations['pages'] = {}
+  const components: BaseTranslations['components'] = {}
+  const sections: BaseTranslations['sections'] = {}
+  const listItems: BaseTranslations['listItems'] = {}
+
+  for (const page of def.pages) {
+    if (page.id && page.title) {
+      pages[page.id] = { title: page.title }
+    }
+
+    if (hasComponentsEvenIfNoNext(page)) {
+      for (const component of page.components) {
+        if (!component.id) continue
+
+        const entry: BaseTranslations['components'][string] = {}
+
+        if (component.title) entry.title = component.title
+        if ('hint' in component && component.hint) entry.hint = component.hint
+        if ('content' in component && component.content) {
+          entry.content = component.content
+        }
+        if ('shortDescription' in component && component.shortDescription) {
+          entry.shortDescription = component.shortDescription
+        }
+
+        if (Object.keys(entry).length) {
+          components[component.id] = entry
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  for (const section of def.sections) {
+    if (section.id && section.title) {
+      sections[section.id] = { title: section.title }
+    }
+  }
+
+  for (const list of def.lists) {
+    for (const item of list.items) {
+      if (item.id && item.text) {
+        listItems[item.id] = { text: item.text }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  return { pages, components, sections, listItems }
+}
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/index.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/index.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..030f4ea3a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/index.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+import {
+  createFormI18nInstance,
+  t
+} from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/index.js'
+
+describe('i18n t()', () => {
+  it('returns the English string for a known key', () => {
+    expect(t('errors.title', 'en-GB')).toBe('There is a problem')
+  })
+
+  it('falls back to en-GB for an unknown language', () => {
+    expect(t('errors.title', 'fr')).toBe('There is a problem')
+  })
+
+  it('returns the Welsh string for cy locale', () => {
+    expect(t('errors.title', 'cy')).toBe('Mae problem')
+  })
+
+  it('returns the key string itself when the key does not exist', () => {
+    expect(t('does.not.exist', 'en-GB')).toBe('does.not.exist')
+  })
+
+  it('interpolates [[...]] placeholders', () => {
+    expect(t('pages.repeater.pageTitle', 'en-GB', { count: 3 })).toBe(
+      'You have added 3 answers'
+    )
+  })
+
+  it('selects _one plural variant when count is 1', () => {
+    expect(t('pages.repeater.pageTitle', 'en-GB', { count: 1 })).toBe(
+      'You have added 1 answer'
+    )
+  })
+})
+
+describe('createFormI18nInstance', () => {
+  const formNamespace = {
+    pages: { 'page-id': { title: 'Your personal details' } },
+    components: {
+      'comp-id': { title: 'First name', hint: 'As shown on licence' }
+    },
+    sections: {},
+    listItems: {}
+  }
+
+  it('resolves plugin strings for en-GB', () => {
+    const instance = createFormI18nInstance(formNamespace)
+    const t = instance.getFixedT('en-GB', 'plugin')
+    expect(t('common.continue')).toBe('Continue')
+  })
+
+  it('resolves form content from the form namespace for en-GB', () => {
+    const instance = createFormI18nInstance(formNamespace)
+    const t = instance.getFixedT('en-GB', 'form')
+    expect(t('pages.page-id.title')).toBe('Your personal details')
+  })
+
+  it('falls back to en-GB form strings for an unknown language', () => {
+    const instance = createFormI18nInstance(formNamespace)
+    const t = instance.getFixedT('cy', 'form')
+    expect(t('pages.page-id.title')).toBe('Your personal details')
+  })
+
+  it('resolves a Welsh override when registered', () => {
+    const instance = createFormI18nInstance(formNamespace)
+    instance.addResourceBundle(
+      'cy',
+      'form',
+      { pages: { 'page-id': { title: 'Eich manylion personol' } } },
+      true,
+      true
+    )
+    const t = instance.getFixedT('cy', 'form')
+    expect(t('pages.page-id.title')).toBe('Eich manylion personol')
+  })
+})
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/index.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/index.ts
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..96efc8edb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/index.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+import i18next, { createInstance, type i18n } from 'i18next'
+
+import cy from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/translations/cy.json' with { type: 'json' }
+import enGB from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/translations/en-GB.json' with { type: 'json' }
+import xPirate from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/translations/x-pirate.json' with { type: 'json' }
+import { type FormDefinitionTranslations } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
+
+type BaseTranslations = FormDefinitionTranslations[string]
+
+i18next
+  .init({
+    resources: {
+      'en-GB': { translation: enGB },
+      cy: { translation: cy },
+      'x-pirate': { translation: xPirate }
+    },
+    fallbackLng: 'en-GB',
+    interpolation: {
+      prefix: '[[',
+      suffix: ']]',
+      escapeValue: false
+    }
+  })
+  .catch(() => {
+    // init with inline resources completes synchronously — this branch is unreachable
+  })
+
+export function t(
+  key: string,
+  language: string,
+  options?: Record<string, unknown>
+): string {
+  return i18next.t(key, { lng: language, ...options })
+}
+
+export function createFormI18nInstance(formEnGb: BaseTranslations): i18n {
+  const instance = createInstance()
+
+  instance
+    .init({
+      resources: {
+        'en-GB': {
+          plugin: enGB,
+          form: formEnGb
+        },
+        cy: {
+          plugin: cy
+        },
+        'x-pirate': {
+          plugin: xPirate
+        }
+      },
+      fallbackLng: 'en-GB',
+      ns: ['plugin', 'form'],
+      defaultNS: 'plugin',
+      interpolation: {
+        prefix: '[[',
+        suffix: ']]',
+        escapeValue: false
+      }
+    })
+    .catch(() => {
+      // init with inline resources completes synchronously — unreachable
+    })
+
+  return instance
+}
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/translations/cy.json b/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/translations/cy.json
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..a98cf4aaf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/translations/cy.json
@@ -0,0 +1,269 @@
+{
+  "validation": {
+    "required": "Nodwch {{lowerFirst(#label)}}",
+    "selectRequired": "Dewiswch {{lowerFirst(#label)}}",
+    "pattern": "Nodwch {{lowerFirst(#label)}} dilys",
+    "format": "Nodwch {{lowerFirst(#label)}} yn y fformat cywir",
+    "objectRequired": "Nodwch {{#label}}",
+    "objectMissing": "Rhaid i {{#title}} gynnwys {{lowerFirst(#label)}}",
+    "max": "Rhaid i {{#label}} fod yn {{#limit}} o nodau neu lai",
+    "min": "Rhaid i {{#label}} fod yn {{#limit}} o nodau neu fwy",
+    "minMax": "Rhaid i {{#label}} fod rhwng {{#min}} a {{#max}} o nodau",
+    "number": "Rhaid i {{#label}} fod yn rhif",
+    "numberPrecision": "Rhaid i {{#label}} beidio â chael mwy na {{#limit}} lle degol",
+    "numberInteger": "Rhaid i {{#label}} fod yn rhif cyfan",
+    "numberMin": "Rhaid i {{#label}} fod yn {{#limit}} neu uwch",
+    "numberMax": "Rhaid i {{#label}} fod yn {{#limit}} neu is",
+    "maxWords": "Rhaid i {{#label}} fod yn {{#limit}} o eiriau neu lai"
+  },
+
+  "errors": {
+    "title": "Mae problem",
+    "optionsMismatch": "Mae'r opsiynau'n wahanol oherwydd i chi newid ateb blaenorol"
+  },
+
+  "common": {
+    "optional": "(dewisol)",
+    "warningIconFallback": "Rhybudd",
+    "back": "Yn ôl",
+    "continue": "Parhau",
+    "saveAndExit": "Cadw a gadael",
+    "draft": "ddrafft",
+    "live": "fyw"
+  },
+
+  "pages": {
+    "question": {
+      "paymentCancelledBannerTitle": "Pwysig",
+      "paymentCancelledTitle": "Mae eich taliad wedi'i ganslo",
+      "paymentCancelledBody": "Cafodd eich manylion talu eu dileu oherwydd bod y ffurflen yn anweithredol am 5 diwrnod.",
+      "paymentCancelledAction": "Ychwanegwch eich manylion talu eto.",
+      "backToAddAnother": "Ewch yn ôl i ychwanegu un arall",
+      "backToCheckAnswers": "Ewch yn ôl i wirio'ch atebion",
+      "startNow": "Dechrau nawr"
+    },
+
+    "summary": {
+      "title": "Gwiriwch eich atebion cyn anfon eich ffurflen",
+      "change": "Newid",
+      "notProvided": "Heb ei ddarparu",
+      "declaration": "Datganiad",
+      "acceptAndSubmit": "Derbyn a chyflwyno",
+      "submit": "Cyflwyno",
+      "saveAndExit": "Cadw a gadael",
+      "paymentSuccessBannerTitle": "Llwyddiant",
+      "paymentSuccessTitle": "Mae gennym eich manylion talu",
+      "paymentSuccessBody": "Mae eich taliad ar ddal. Byddwn yn codi tâl arnoch pan fyddwch yn cyflwyno'r ffurflen.",
+      "paymentDetailsTitle": "Manylion talu",
+      "paymentFor": "Taliad am",
+      "totalAmount": "Cyfanswm",
+      "reference": "Cyfeirnod",
+      "dateOfPayment": "Dyddiad talu",
+      "submissionFailed": "Roedd problem ac ni chyflwynwyd eich ffurflen. Ceisiwch gyflwyno'r ffurflen eto",
+      "submissionFailedContactSuffix": " neu gallwch [[contactUsLink]] a dyfynnu'ch cyfeirnod i drefnu ad-daliad",
+      "contactUsLinkText": "cysylltu â ni (yn agor mewn tab newydd)",
+      "confirmationEmail": "E-bost cadarnhad (dewisol)",
+      "confirmationEmailHint": "Rhowch eich cyfeiriad e-bost i dderbyn e-bost cadarnhau a chopi o'ch atebion"
+    },
+
+    "repeater": {
+      "removeAnswer": "Ydych chi'n siŵr eich bod am dynnu'r ateb hwn?",
+      "remove": "Tynnu",
+      "cancel": "Canslo",
+      "lastItemCannotBeRemoved": "Ni ellir tynnu eitem olaf y rhestr",
+      "itemToRemoveNotFound": "Ni chanfuwyd eitem y rhestr i'w thynnu",
+      "continue": "Parhau",
+      "addAnother": "Ychwanegu un arall",
+      "saveAndExit": "Cadw a gadael",
+      "change": "Newid",
+      "notProvided": "Heb ei ddarparu",
+      "visuallyHiddenItem": "eitem [[index]]",
+      "pageTitle_one": "Rydych wedi ychwanegu [[count]] ateb",
+      "pageTitle_other": "Rydych wedi ychwanegu [[count]] ateb",
+      "tooMany_one": "Dim ond hyd at [[count]] ateb y gallwch ei ychwanegu",
+      "tooMany_other": "Dim ond hyd at [[count]] ateb y gallwch eu hychwanegu",
+      "tooFew_one": "Rhaid i chi ychwanegu o leiaf [[count]] ateb",
+      "tooFew_other": "Rhaid i chi ychwanegu o leiaf [[count]] ateb"
+    },
+
+    "fileUpload": {
+      "upload": "Uwchlwytho ffeil",
+      "maxFilesReached": "Rydych wedi cyrraedd nifer uchaf y ffeiliau. Tynnwch ffeil i uwchlwytho rhagor."
+    },
+
+    "exit": {
+      "defaultTitle": "Mae eich cynnydd wedi'i gadw",
+      "whatHappensNext": "Beth sy'n digwydd nesaf",
+      "body": "Mae cynnydd eich ffurflen wedi'i gadw. Gallwch ddychwelyd i gwblhau eich cais ar unrhyw adeg gan ddefnyddio'r ddolen a ddarperir.",
+      "returnToApplication": "Dychwelyd i'r cais"
+    },
+
+    "confirmation": {
+      "whatHappensNext": "Beth sy'n digwydd nesaf",
+      "referenceNumber": "Eich cyfeirnod",
+      "feedbackLink": "Beth yw eich barn am y gwasanaeth hwn? (yn cymryd 30 eiliad)"
+    },
+
+    "preview": {
+      "warnMissingNotificationEmail": {
+        "body": "Os hoffech dderbyn e-bost prawf, [[link]] yr hoffech i gyflwyniadau ffurflen fynd iddo.",
+        "linkText": "nodwch y cyfeiriad e-bost (yn agor mewn tab newydd)"
+      },
+      "bannerForce": "Rhagolwg o ffurflen [[previewMode]] yw hon. Peidiwch â rhoi gwybodaeth bersonol.",
+      "bannerText": "Dyma ragolwg o dudalen ffurflen [[previewMode]] rydych chi'n ei golygu.",
+      "previousPages": "Mae'n dibynnu ar atebion o dudalennau cynharach yn y ffurflen. Yn y fersiwn fyw, bydd angen i ddefnyddwyr gwblhau'r cwestiynau hynny yn gyntaf."
+    }
+  },
+
+  "postcodeLookup": {
+    "postcodeLabel": "Cod post",
+    "postcodeHint": "Er enghraifft, AA3 1AB",
+    "buildingNameLabel": "Enw neu rif yr adeilad (dewisol)",
+    "buildingNameHint": "Er enghraifft, 15 neu Bryn Melyn",
+    "selectAddress": "Dewiswch gyfeiriad",
+    "addressLine1Label": "Llinell cyfeiriad 1",
+    "addressLine2Label": "Llinell cyfeiriad 2 (dewisol)",
+    "townLabel": "Tref neu ddinas",
+    "countyLabel": "Sir (dewisol)",
+    "findAddress": "Dod o hyd i gyfeiriad",
+    "enterManually": "nodwch gyfeiriad â llaw",
+    "searchAgain": "Chwilio eto",
+    "useThisAddress": "Defnyddio'r cyfeiriad hwn",
+    "findAnAddressInstead": "dod o hyd i gyfeiriad yn lle hynny",
+    "noAddressFoundTitle": "Ni chanfuwyd cyfeiriad",
+    "noAddressFoundBody": "Ni allem ddod o hyd i gyfeiriad cyfatebol",
+    "addressFound_one": "Canfuwyd [[count]] cyfeiriad ar gyfer",
+    "addressFound_other": "Canfuwyd [[count]] cyfeiriad ar gyfer",
+    "validation": {
+      "invalidPostcode": "Nodwch god post dilys neu nodwch gyfeiriad â llaw",
+      "requiredPostcode": "Nodwch god post",
+      "selectAddress": "Dewiswch gyfeiriad",
+      "requiredAddressLine1": "Nodwch linell cyfeiriad 1",
+      "requiredTown": "Nodwch dref neu ddinas",
+      "invalidManualPostcode": "Nodwch god post dilys",
+      "requiredManualPostcode": "Nodwch god post"
+    }
+  },
+
+  "components": {
+    "dateField": {
+      "day": "Diwrnod",
+      "month": "Mis",
+      "year": "Blwyddyn",
+      "validation": {
+        "dateFormat": "Rhaid i {{#title}} fod yn ddyddiad go iawn",
+        "dateMin": "Rhaid i {{#title}} fod yr un fath â neu ar ôl {{#limit}}",
+        "dateMax": "Rhaid i {{#title}} fod yr un fath â neu cyn {{#limit}}"
+      }
+    },
+
+    "monthYearField": {
+      "month": "Mis",
+      "year": "Blwyddyn"
+    },
+
+    "addressField": {
+      "uprn": "UPRN",
+      "line1": "Llinell cyfeiriad 1",
+      "line2": "Llinell cyfeiriad 2",
+      "town": "Tref neu ddinas",
+      "county": "Sir",
+      "postcode": "Cod post",
+      "enterAddress": "Nodwch [[shortDescription]]",
+      "findAddress": "Dod o hyd i gyfeiriad",
+      "selectedAddress": "Cyfeiriad a ddewiswyd:",
+      "useDifferentAddress": "Defnyddio cyfeiriad gwahanol",
+      "enterManually": "nodwch gyfeiriad â llaw"
+    },
+
+    "latLongField": {
+      "latitude": "Lledred",
+      "longitude": "Hydred",
+      "latitudeRequired": "Nodwch ledred",
+      "longitudeRequired": "Nodwch hydred",
+      "precision": "Rhaid i {{#label}} beidio â chael mwy na 7 lle degol",
+      "notANumber": "Rhaid i {{#label}} fod yn rif dilys",
+      "latitudeBase": "Nodwch ledred dilys ar gyfer [[fieldLabel]] fel 51.519450",
+      "longitudeBase": "Nodwch hydred dilys ar gyfer [[fieldLabel]] fel -0.127758",
+      "latitudeRange": "Rhaid i ledred [[fieldLabel]] fod rhwng [[min]] a [[max]]",
+      "longitudeRange": "Rhaid i hydred [[fieldLabel]] fod rhwng [[min]] a [[max]]"
+    },
+
+    "eastingNorthingField": {
+      "easting": "Dwyreiniannau",
+      "northing": "Gogleddiannau",
+      "eastingRequired": "Nodwch ddwyreiniannau",
+      "northingRequired": "Nodwch ogleddiannau",
+      "eastingDigits": "Rhaid i {{#label}} ar gyfer [[fieldLabel]] fod rhwng 1 a 6 digid",
+      "northingDigits": "Rhaid i {{#label}} ar gyfer [[fieldLabel]] fod rhwng 1 a 7 digid",
+      "eastingRange": "Rhaid i {{#label}} ar gyfer [[fieldLabel]] fod rhwng [[min]] a [[max]]",
+      "northingRange": "Rhaid i {{#label}} ar gyfer [[fieldLabel]] fod rhwng [[min]] a [[max]]"
+    },
+
+    "nationalGridField": {
+      "required": "Nodwch {{lowerFirst(#title)}}",
+      "pattern": "Nodwch rif maes Grid Cenedlaethol dilys ar gyfer {{lowerFirst(#title)}} fel NG 1234 5678",
+      "howToFind": "Sut i ddod o hyd i fanylion lleoliad"
+    },
+
+    "osGridRefField": {
+      "required": "Nodwch {{lowerFirst(#title)}}",
+      "pattern": "Nodwch gyfeirnod grid AO dilys ar gyfer {{lowerFirst(#title)}} fel TQ123456",
+      "howToFind": "Sut i ddod o hyd i fanylion lleoliad"
+    },
+
+    "locationFieldBase": {
+      "howToFind": "Sut i ddod o hyd i fanylion lleoliad"
+    },
+
+    "yesNoField": {
+      "yes": "Ie",
+      "no": "Na",
+      "validation": {
+        "selectYesNoRequired": "{{#label}} - dewiswch ie neu na"
+      }
+    },
+
+    "declarationField": {
+      "defaultLabel": "Rwy'n deall ac yn cytuno",
+      "defaultConfirmationLabel": "Rwy'n cadarnhau fy mod yn deall ac yn derbyn y datganiad hwn",
+      "notProvided": "Heb ei ddarparu",
+      "validation": {
+        "declarationRequired": "Rhaid i chi gadarnhau eich bod yn deall ac yn cytuno â'r {{lowerFirst(#label)}} i barhau"
+      }
+    },
+
+    "geospatialField": {
+      "added_one": "Ychwanegwyd [[count]] lleoliad",
+      "added_other": "Ychwanegwyd [[count]] lleoliad",
+      "validation": {
+        "descriptionRequired": "Rhowch ddisgrifiad ar gyfer lleoliad [[count]]",
+        "wrongCountry": "Rhaid i leoliad [[count]] fod y tu mewn i [[country]]"
+      }
+    },
+
+    "paymentField": {
+      "detailsRequired": "Angen manylion talu",
+      "pendingTransaction": "Mae'n bosibl y gwelwch drafodiad ar y gweill yn eich cyfrif banc ond dim ond pan fyddwch yn cyflwyno'r ffurflen y codir tâl arnoch.",
+      "addPaymentDetails": "Ychwanegu manylion talu",
+      "cannotTakePayment": "Mae problem ac ni allwn dderbyn taliad. Cysylltwch â ni (manylion yn nhroedyn y ffurflen hon) neu cadwch eich cynnydd a dychwelyd at y ffurflen yn ddiweddarach.",
+      "testApiKey": "Ychwanegwch allwedd API prawf ddilys cyn i chi allu rhagolwg y daith talu.",
+      "completePayment": "Cwblhewch y taliad i barhau",
+      "paymentExpired": "Mae awdurdodiad eich taliad wedi dod i ben. Ychwanegwch eich manylion talu eto.",
+      "submissionFailed": "Roedd problem ac ni chyflwynwyd eich ffurflen. Ceisiwch gyflwyno'r ffurflen eto.",
+      "canSubmitAfterPayment": "Gallwch gyflwyno'r ffurflen ar ôl i chi ychwanegu eich manylion talu.",
+      "preAuthorisedTitle": "Rydych eisoes wedi awdurdodi taliad ar gyfer y ffurflen hon",
+      "preAuthorisedBody": "Parhewch i gyflwyno'r ffurflen. Ni chodir tâl arnoch ddwywaith.",
+      "totalAmountLabel": "Cyfanswm:",
+      "paymentAmountMismatch": "Mae swm y taliad a rhaganrhuddhawyd rywsut yn wahanol i'r hyn a ofynnwyd amdano. Ceisiwch ychwanegu manylion talu eto."
+    },
+
+    "fileUploadField": {
+      "uploaded": "Wedi'i uwchlwytho",
+      "uploadFailed": "Roedd problem gyda'ch ffeiliau a uwchlwythwyd. Uwchlwythwch nhw eto cyn cyflwyno'r ffurflen.",
+      "uploadedFilesHeading": "Ffeiliau a uwchlwythwyd",
+      "filesCount_one": "Uwchlwythwyd [[count]] ffeil",
+      "filesCount_other": "Uwchlwythwyd [[count]] ffeil"
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/translations/en-GB.json b/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/translations/en-GB.json
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..26b0a8d97
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/translations/en-GB.json
@@ -0,0 +1,268 @@
+{
+  "validation": {
+    "required": "Enter {{lowerFirst(#label)}}",
+    "selectRequired": "Select {{lowerFirst(#label)}}",
+    "pattern": "Enter a valid {{lowerFirst(#label)}}",
+    "format": "Enter {{lowerFirst(#label)}} in the correct format",
+    "objectRequired": "Enter {{#label}}",
+    "objectMissing": "{{#title}} must include a {{lowerFirst(#label)}}",
+    "max": "{{#label}} must be {{#limit}} characters or less",
+    "min": "{{#label}} must be {{#limit}} characters or more",
+    "minMax": "{{#label}} must be between {{#min}} and {{#max}} characters",
+    "number": "{{#label}} must be a number",
+    "numberPrecision": "{{#label}} must have {{#limit}} or fewer decimal places",
+    "numberInteger": "{{#label}} must be a whole number",
+    "numberMin": "{{#label}} must be {{#limit}} or higher",
+    "numberMax": "{{#label}} must be {{#limit}} or lower",
+    "maxWords": "{{#label}} must be {{#limit}} words or fewer"
+  },
+
+  "errors": {
+    "title": "There is a problem",
+    "optionsMismatch": "Options are different because you changed a previous answer"
+  },
+
+  "common": {
+    "optional": "(optional)",
+    "warningIconFallback": "Warning",
+    "back": "Back",
+    "continue": "Continue",
+    "saveAndExit": "Save and exit",
+    "draft": "draft",
+    "live": "live"
+  },
+
+  "pages": {
+    "question": {
+      "paymentCancelledBannerTitle": "Important",
+      "paymentCancelledTitle": "Your payment has been cancelled",
+      "paymentCancelledBody": "Your payment details were deleted because the form was inactive for 5 days.",
+      "paymentCancelledAction": "Add your payment details again.",
+      "backToAddAnother": "Go back to add another",
+      "backToCheckAnswers": "Go back to check answers",
+      "startNow": "Start now"
+    },
+
+    "summary": {
+      "title": "Check your answers before sending your form",
+      "change": "Change",
+      "notProvided": "Not provided",
+      "declaration": "Declaration",
+      "acceptAndSubmit": "Accept and submit",
+      "submit": "Submit",
+      "saveAndExit": "Save and exit",
+      "paymentSuccessBannerTitle": "Success",
+      "paymentSuccessTitle": "We have your payment details",
+      "paymentSuccessBody": "Your payment is on hold. We will charge you when you submit the form.",
+      "paymentDetailsTitle": "Payment details",
+      "paymentFor": "Payment for",
+      "totalAmount": "Total amount",
+      "reference": "Reference",
+      "dateOfPayment": "Date of payment",
+      "submissionFailed": "There was a problem and your form was not submitted. Try submitting the form again",
+      "submissionFailedContactSuffix": " or you can [[contactUsLink]] and quote your reference number to arrange a refund",
+      "contactUsLinkText": "contact us (opens in new tab)",
+      "confirmationEmail": "Confirmation email (optional)",
+      "confirmationEmailHint": "Enter your email address to receive a confirmation email and a copy of your answers"
+    },
+
+    "repeater": {
+      "removeAnswer": "Are you sure you want to remove this answer?",
+      "remove": "Remove",
+      "cancel": "Cancel",
+      "lastItemCannotBeRemoved": "Last list item cannot be removed",
+      "itemToRemoveNotFound": "List item to remove not found",
+      "continue": "Continue",
+      "addAnother": "Add another",
+      "saveAndExit": "Save and exit",
+      "change": "Change",
+      "notProvided": "Not provided",
+      "visuallyHiddenItem": "item [[index]]",
+      "pageTitle_one": "You have added [[count]] answer",
+      "pageTitle_other": "You have added [[count]] answers",
+      "tooMany_one": "You can only add up to [[count]] answer",
+      "tooMany_other": "You can only add up to [[count]] answers",
+      "tooFew_one": "You must add at least [[count]] answer",
+      "tooFew_other": "You must add at least [[count]] answers"
+    },
+
+    "fileUpload": {
+      "upload": "Upload file",
+      "maxFilesReached": "You have reached the maximum number of files. Please remove a file to upload more."
+    },
+
+    "exit": {
+      "defaultTitle": "Your progress has been saved",
+      "whatHappensNext": "What happens next",
+      "body": "Your form progress has been saved. You can return to complete your application at any time using the link provided.",
+      "returnToApplication": "Return to application"
+    },
+
+    "confirmation": {
+      "whatHappensNext": "What happens next",
+      "referenceNumber": "Your reference number",
+      "feedbackLink": "What do you think of this service? (takes 30 seconds)"
+    },
+
+    "preview": {
+      "warnMissingNotificationEmail": {
+        "body": "If you want to receive a test email, [[link]] you want form submissions to go to.",
+        "linkText": "enter the email address (opens in new tab)"
+      },
+      "bannerForce": "This is a preview of a [[previewMode]] form. Do not enter personal information.",
+      "bannerText": "This is a preview of a [[previewMode]] form page you are editing.",
+      "previousPages": "It depends on answers from earlier pages in the form. In the live version, users will need to complete those questions first."
+    }
+  },
+
+  "postcodeLookup": {
+    "postcodeLabel": "Postcode",
+    "postcodeHint": "For example, AA3 1AB",
+    "buildingNameLabel": "Building name or number (optional)",
+    "buildingNameHint": "For example, 15 or Prospect Cottage",
+    "selectAddress": "Select an address",
+    "addressLine1Label": "Address line 1",
+    "addressLine2Label": "Address line 2 (optional)",
+    "townLabel": "Town or city",
+    "countyLabel": "County (optional)",
+    "findAddress": "Find address",
+    "enterManually": "enter address manually",
+    "searchAgain": "Search again",
+    "useThisAddress": "Use this address",
+    "findAnAddressInstead": "find an address instead",
+    "noAddressFoundTitle": "No address found",
+    "noAddressFoundBody": "We could not find an address that matches",
+    "addressFound_one": "[[count]] address found for",
+    "addressFound_other": "[[count]] addresses found for",
+    "validation": {
+      "invalidPostcode": "Enter a valid postcode or enter an address manually",
+      "requiredPostcode": "Enter a postcode",
+      "selectAddress": "Select an address",
+      "requiredAddressLine1": "Enter address line 1",
+      "requiredTown": "Enter town or city",
+      "invalidManualPostcode": "Enter a valid postcode",
+      "requiredManualPostcode": "Enter postcode"
+    }
+  },
+
+  "components": {
+    "dateField": {
+      "day": "Day",
+      "month": "Month",
+      "year": "Year",
+      "validation": {
+        "dateFormat": "{{#title}} must be a real date",
+        "dateMin": "{{#title}} must be the same as or after {{#limit}}",
+        "dateMax": "{{#title}} must be the same as or before {{#limit}}"
+      }
+    },
+
+    "monthYearField": {
+      "month": "Month",
+      "year": "Year"
+    },
+
+    "addressField": {
+      "uprn": "UPRN",
+      "line1": "Address line 1",
+      "line2": "Address line 2",
+      "town": "Town or city",
+      "county": "County",
+      "postcode": "Postcode",
+      "enterAddress": "Enter [[shortDescription]]",
+      "findAddress": "Find an address",
+      "selectedAddress": "Selected address:",
+      "useDifferentAddress": "Use a different address",
+      "enterManually": "enter address manually"
+    },
+
+    "latLongField": {
+      "latitude": "Latitude",
+      "longitude": "Longitude",
+      "latitudeRequired": "Enter latitude",
+      "longitudeRequired": "Enter longitude",
+      "precision": "{{#label}} must have no more than 7 decimal places",
+      "notANumber": "{{#label}} must be a valid number",
+      "latitudeBase": "Enter a valid latitude for [[fieldLabel]] like 51.519450",
+      "longitudeBase": "Enter a valid longitude for [[fieldLabel]] like -0.127758",
+      "latitudeRange": "Latitude for [[fieldLabel]] must be between [[min]] and [[max]]",
+      "longitudeRange": "Longitude for [[fieldLabel]] must be between [[min]] and [[max]]"
+    },
+
+    "eastingNorthingField": {
+      "easting": "Easting",
+      "northing": "Northing",
+      "eastingRequired": "Enter easting",
+      "northingRequired": "Enter northing",
+      "eastingDigits": "{{#label}} for [[fieldLabel]] must be between 1 and 6 digits",
+      "northingDigits": "{{#label}} for [[fieldLabel]] must be between 1 and 7 digits",
+      "eastingRange": "{{#label}} for [[fieldLabel]] must be between [[min]] and [[max]]",
+      "northingRange": "{{#label}} for [[fieldLabel]] must be between [[min]] and [[max]]"
+    },
+
+    "nationalGridField": {
+      "required": "Enter {{lowerFirst(#title)}}",
+      "pattern": "Enter a valid National Grid field number for {{lowerFirst(#title)}} like NG 1234 5678",
+      "howToFind": "How to find location details"
+    },
+
+    "osGridRefField": {
+      "required": "Enter {{lowerFirst(#title)}}",
+      "pattern": "Enter a valid OS grid reference for {{lowerFirst(#title)}} like TQ123456",
+      "howToFind": "How to find location details"
+    },
+
+    "locationFieldBase": {
+      "howToFind": "How to find location details"
+    },
+
+    "yesNoField": {
+      "yes": "Yes",
+      "no": "No",
+      "validation": {
+        "selectYesNoRequired": "{{#label}} - select yes or no"
+      }
+    },
+
+    "declarationField": {
+      "defaultLabel": "I understand and agree",
+      "defaultConfirmationLabel": "I confirm that I understand and accept this declaration",
+      "notProvided": "Not provided",
+      "validation": {
+        "declarationRequired": "You must confirm you understand and agree with the {{lowerFirst(#label)}} to continue"
+      }
+    },
+
+    "geospatialField": {
+      "added_one": "Added [[count]] location",
+      "added_other": "Added [[count]] locations",
+      "validation": {
+        "descriptionRequired": "Enter description for location [[count]]"
+      }
+    },
+
+    "paymentField": {
+      "detailsRequired": "Payment details required",
+      "pendingTransaction": "You may see a pending transaction in your bank account but you will only be charged when you submit the form.",
+      "addPaymentDetails": "Add payment details",
+      "cannotTakePayment": "There is a problem and we cannot take a payment. Contact us (details in the footer of this form) or save your progress and return to the form later.",
+      "testApiKey": "Add a valid test API key before you can preview the payment journey.",
+      "completePayment": "Complete the payment to continue",
+      "paymentExpired": "Your payment authorisation has expired. Please add your payment details again.",
+      "submissionFailed": "There was a problem and your form was not submitted. Try submitting the form again.",
+      "canSubmitAfterPayment": "You can submit the form after you have added your payment details.",
+      "preAuthorisedTitle": "You have already authorised a payment for this form",
+      "preAuthorisedBody": "Continue to submit the form. You will not be charged twice.",
+      "totalAmountLabel": "Total amount:",
+      "paymentAmountMismatch": "The pre-authorised payment amount is somehow different from that requested. Try adding payment details again."
+    },
+
+    "fileUploadField": {
+      "uploaded": "Uploaded",
+      "uploadFailed": "There was a problem with your uploaded files. Re-upload them before submitting the form again.",
+      "uploadedFilesHeading": "Uploaded files",
+      "filesCount_one": "[[count]] file uploaded",
+      "filesCount_other": "[[count]] files uploaded"
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/translations/x-pirate.json b/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/translations/x-pirate.json
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..756df692b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/translations/x-pirate.json
@@ -0,0 +1,227 @@
+{
+  "validation": {
+    "required": "Ye must enter {{lowerFirst(#label)}}, ye scallywag",
+    "selectRequired": "Ye must select {{lowerFirst(#label)}}, ye scallywag",
+    "pattern": "Shiver me timbers! Enter a valid {{lowerFirst(#label)}}",
+    "format": "Blimey! Enter {{lowerFirst(#label)}} in the correct format",
+    "objectRequired": "Enter {{#label}}, or walk the plank",
+    "objectMissing": "Arrr! {{#title}} must include a {{lowerFirst(#label)}}",
+    "max": "{{#label}} must be {{#limit}} characters or fewer, ye blabberin' sea dog",
+    "min": "{{#label}} must be at least {{#limit}} characters, ye miserly landlubber",
+    "minMax": "{{#label}} must be between {{#min}} and {{#max}} characters, no more no less",
+    "number": "{{#label}} must be a number, ye innumerate buccaneer",
+    "numberPrecision": "{{#label}} must have {{#limit}} or fewer decimal places, arrr",
+    "numberInteger": "{{#label}} must be a whole number — no fractions on the high seas",
+    "numberMin": "{{#label}} must be {{#limit}} or higher, ye cheapskate",
+    "numberMax": "{{#label}} must be {{#limit}} or lower, ye greedy pirate",
+    "maxWords": "{{#label}} must be {{#limit}} words or fewer, ye long-winded bilge rat"
+  },
+
+  "errors": {
+    "title": "Blimey! There be a problem"
+  },
+
+  "common": {
+    "optional": "(optional, if ye dare skip it)",
+    "warningIconFallback": "Warnin'!",
+    "back": "Turn the ship around",
+    "continue": "Sail on",
+    "saveAndExit": "Stow yer progress an' abandon ship"
+  },
+
+  "pages": {
+    "question": {
+      "paymentCancelledBannerTitle": "Avast!",
+      "paymentCancelledTitle": "Yer payment has walked the plank",
+      "paymentCancelledBody": "Yer payment details were cast into Davy Jones' locker because the form was idle for 5 days.",
+      "paymentCancelledAction": "Enter yer payment details again, if ye be brave enough.",
+      "backToAddAnother": "Back to add another, arrr",
+      "backToCheckAnswers": "Back to check yer answers, ye forgetful swab",
+      "startNow": "Weigh anchor!"
+    },
+
+    "summary": {
+      "title": "Check yer answers before sendin' yer form",
+      "change": "Change course",
+      "notProvided": "Not provided, ye forgetful landlubber",
+      "declaration": "Proclamation",
+      "acceptAndSubmit": "Accept an' fire the cannons",
+      "submit": "Submit, arrr",
+      "saveAndExit": "Stow yer progress an' abandon ship",
+      "paymentSuccessBannerTitle": "Hoist the colours!",
+      "paymentSuccessTitle": "We have yer plunder details",
+      "paymentSuccessBody": "Yer payment be held in the crow's nest. We'll charge ye when ye submit the form.",
+      "paymentDetailsTitle": "Plunder details",
+      "paymentFor": "Plunder for",
+      "totalAmount": "Total booty",
+      "reference": "Scroll number",
+      "dateOfPayment": "Date of plunder",
+      "submissionFailed": "There be a problem and yer form was not submitted. Try submittin' the form again",
+      "submissionFailedContactSuffix": " or ye can [[contactUsLink]] and quote yer scroll number to arrange a refund",
+      "contactUsLinkText": "contact the crew (opens in new tab)"
+    },
+
+    "repeater": {
+      "removeAnswer": "Are ye sure ye want to cast this answer overboard, arrr?",
+      "remove": "Cast overboard",
+      "cancel": "Belay that",
+      "continue": "Sail on",
+      "addAnother": "Add another, matey",
+      "saveAndExit": "Stow yer progress an' abandon ship",
+      "change": "Change course",
+      "notProvided": "Not provided, ye forgetful landlubber",
+      "visuallyHiddenItem": "item [[index]]",
+      "pageTitle_one": "Ye have added [[count]] answer, arrr",
+      "pageTitle_other": "Ye have added [[count]] answers, arrr",
+      "tooMany_one": "Ye can only add up to [[count]] answer, ye greedy pirate",
+      "tooMany_other": "Ye can only add up to [[count]] answers, ye greedy pirate",
+      "tooFew_one": "Ye must add at least [[count]] answer or walk the plank",
+      "tooFew_other": "Ye must add at least [[count]] answers or walk the plank"
+    },
+
+    "fileUpload": {
+      "upload": "Hoist yer file",
+      "maxFilesReached": "Ye have reached the maximum number of files. Cast one overboard before ye hoist any more."
+    },
+
+    "exit": {
+      "defaultTitle": "Yer progress has been stowed in the hold",
+      "whatHappensNext": "What happens next on yer voyage",
+      "body": "Yer form progress has been stowed in the hold. Ye can return to complete yer application at any time using the link provided.",
+      "returnToApplication": "Return to yer voyage"
+    },
+
+    "confirmation": {
+      "whatHappensNext": "What happens next on yer voyage",
+      "referenceNumber": "Yer scroll number",
+      "feedbackLink": "What do ye think of this service? (takes 30 seconds, even for a pirate)"
+    },
+
+    "preview": {
+      "warnMissingNotificationEmail": {
+        "body": "If ye want to receive a test email, [[link]] ye want form submissions to go to.",
+        "linkText": "enter the email address (opens in new tab)"
+      }
+    }
+  },
+
+  "components": {
+    "dateField": {
+      "day": "Day (of the raid)",
+      "month": "Month (of the raid)",
+      "year": "Year (of the raid)",
+      "validation": {
+        "dateFormat": "{{#title}} must be a real date, not some made-up nonsense",
+        "dateMin": "{{#title}} must be the same as or after {{#limit}}, ye time-traveller",
+        "dateMax": "{{#title}} must be the same as or before {{#limit}}, ye time-traveller"
+      }
+    },
+
+    "monthYearField": {
+      "month": "Month (of the raid)",
+      "year": "Year (of the raid)"
+    },
+
+    "addressField": {
+      "uprn": "Berth number (UPRN)",
+      "line1": "Port address line 1",
+      "line2": "Port address line 2",
+      "town": "Town or port",
+      "county": "County (or high seas region)",
+      "postcode": "Postcode",
+      "enterAddress": "Enter [[shortDescription]]",
+      "findAddress": "Find a berth",
+      "selectedAddress": "Selected berth:",
+      "useDifferentAddress": "Use a different berth",
+      "enterManually": "enter address manually, ye stubborn sea dog"
+    },
+
+    "latLongField": {
+      "latitude": "Latitude (X marks the spot)",
+      "longitude": "Longitude (X marks the spot)",
+      "latitudeRequired": "Enter latitude or ye'll never find the treasure",
+      "longitudeRequired": "Enter longitude or ye'll never find the treasure",
+      "precision": "{{#label}} must have no more than 7 decimal places, arrr",
+      "notANumber": "{{#label}} must be a valid number, ye innumerate buccaneer",
+      "latitudeBase": "Enter a valid latitude for [[fieldLabel]] like 51.519450 — X marks the spot!",
+      "longitudeBase": "Enter a valid longitude for [[fieldLabel]] like -0.127758 — X marks the spot!",
+      "latitudeRange": "Latitude for [[fieldLabel]] must be between [[min]] and [[max]] — outside that be dragons",
+      "longitudeRange": "Longitude for [[fieldLabel]] must be between [[min]] and [[max]] — outside that be dragons"
+    },
+
+    "eastingNorthingField": {
+      "easting": "Easting (how far East on the treasure map)",
+      "northing": "Northing (how far North on the treasure map)",
+      "eastingRequired": "Enter easting or ye'll be lost at sea",
+      "northingRequired": "Enter northing or ye'll be lost at sea",
+      "eastingDigits": "{{#label}} for [[fieldLabel]] must be between 1 and 6 digits, landlubber",
+      "northingDigits": "{{#label}} for [[fieldLabel]] must be between 1 and 7 digits, landlubber",
+      "eastingRange": "{{#label}} for [[fieldLabel]] must be between [[min]] and [[max]] — outside that be dragons",
+      "northingRange": "{{#label}} for [[fieldLabel]] must be between [[min]] and [[max]] — outside that be dragons"
+    },
+
+    "nationalGridField": {
+      "required": "Enter {{lowerFirst(#title)}}, ye scallywag",
+      "pattern": "Enter a valid National Grid reference for {{lowerFirst(#title)}} like NG 1234 5678 — even a parrot could do it",
+      "howToFind": "How to find yer location on the treasure map"
+    },
+
+    "osGridRefField": {
+      "required": "Enter {{lowerFirst(#title)}}, ye scallywag",
+      "pattern": "Enter a valid OS grid reference for {{lowerFirst(#title)}} like TQ123456 — even a parrot could do it",
+      "howToFind": "How to find yer location on the treasure map"
+    },
+
+    "locationFieldBase": {
+      "howToFind": "How to find yer location on the treasure map"
+    },
+
+    "yesNoField": {
+      "yes": "Aye",
+      "no": "Nay",
+      "validation": {
+        "selectYesNoRequired": "{{#label}} — say aye or nay, ye indecisive landlubber"
+      }
+    },
+
+    "declarationField": {
+      "defaultLabel": "Aye, I understand an' agree, on me honour as a pirate",
+      "defaultConfirmationLabel": "I swear on Davy Jones' locker that I understand and accept this declaration",
+      "notProvided": "Not provided, ye forgetful landlubber",
+      "validation": {
+        "declarationRequired": "Ye must confirm ye understand and agree with the {{lowerFirst(#label)}} to continue, or walk the plank"
+      }
+    },
+
+    "geospatialField": {
+      "added_one": "Ye've marked [[count]] location on the treasure map",
+      "added_other": "Ye've marked [[count]] locations on the treasure map",
+      "validation": {
+        "descriptionRequired": "Mark yer description for location [[count]] on the map, ye scallywag"
+      }
+    },
+
+    "paymentField": {
+      "detailsRequired": "Plunder details required, arrr",
+      "pendingTransaction": "Ye may see a pending transaction in yer treasure chest but ye'll only be charged when ye submit the form.",
+      "addPaymentDetails": "Add plunder details",
+      "cannotTakePayment": "There be a problem and we cannot take yer plunder. Contact the crew (details in the footer of this form) or stow yer progress and return later.",
+      "testApiKey": "Add a valid test API key before ye can preview the payment journey, ye scallywag.",
+      "completePayment": "Complete the plunder to continue",
+      "paymentExpired": "Yer payment authorisation has expired and sunk to the ocean floor. Add yer payment details again.",
+      "submissionFailed": "There be a problem and yer form was not submitted. Try submittin' the form again.",
+      "canSubmitAfterPayment": "Ye can submit the form after ye have handed over yer plunder.",
+      "preAuthorisedTitle": "Ye have already authorised a payment for this form, ye keen pirate",
+      "preAuthorisedBody": "Continue to submit the form. Ye will not be charged twice, ye have me word as a pirate.",
+      "totalAmountLabel": "Total booty:"
+    },
+
+    "fileUploadField": {
+      "uploaded": "Hoisted aboard",
+      "uploadFailed": "There be a problem with yer hoisted files. Re-hoist them before submittin' the form again.",
+      "uploadedFilesHeading": "Files hoisted aboard",
+      "filesCount_one": "[[count]] file hoisted aboard",
+      "filesCount_other": "[[count]] files hoisted aboard"
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.ts
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..c0927154b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+import {
+  type ComponentDef,
+  type Item,
+  type Page,
+  type Section
+} from '@defra/forms-model'
+
+/**
+ * Structure of the `translations` block in a form definition.
+ * Also used to derive the valid property keys for the typed tX functions.
+ */
+export type FormDefinitionTranslations = Record<
+  string,
+  {
+    pages: Record<string, Partial<Pick<Page, 'title'>>>
+    // ComponentDef is a discriminated union; Pick across the full union is not feasible.
+    // The four keys below are the complete set of translatable component properties.
+    components: Record<
+      string,
+      Partial<{
+        title: string
+        hint: string
+        content: string
+        shortDescription: string
+      }>
+    >
+    sections: Record<string, Partial<Pick<Section, 'title'>>>
+    listItems: Record<string, Partial<Pick<Item, 'text'>>>
+  }
+>
+
+type EntityTranslations = FormDefinitionTranslations[string]
+
+/**
+ * Scoped translator returned by model.createTranslator(language).
+ * t          — plugin namespace (UI strings, buttons, errors, sub-field labels)
+ * tForm      — form namespace: form attributes, such as name
+ * tPage      — form namespace: page titles
+ * tComponent — form namespace: component titles, hints, shortDescriptions
+ * tSection   — form namespace: section titles
+ * tListItem  — form namespace: list item text
+ */
+export interface Translator {
+  t: (key: string, opts?: Record<string, unknown>) => string
+  tForm: (prop: string) => string
+  tPage: (page: Page, prop: keyof EntityTranslations['pages'][string]) => string
+  tComponent: (
+    component: ComponentDef,
+    prop: keyof EntityTranslations['components'][string]
+  ) => string
+  tSection: (
+    section: Section,
+    prop: keyof EntityTranslations['sections'][string]
+  ) => string
+  tListItem: (
+    item: Item,
+    prop: keyof EntityTranslations['listItems'][string]
+  ) => string
+  language: string
+}
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/index.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/index.ts
index fa0efdfaa..dca00da4b 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/index.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/index.ts
@@ -8,7 +8,8 @@ import {
   checkComponentTemplates,
   checkErrorTemplates,
   evaluate,
-  govukRebrand
+  govukRebrand,
+  tGlobal
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/environment.js'
 import * as filters from '~/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/filters/index.js'
 
@@ -26,7 +27,8 @@ const globals = {
   checkComponentTemplates,
   checkErrorTemplates,
   evaluate,
-  govukRebrand
+  govukRebrand,
+  t: tGlobal
 }
 
 export const VIEW_PATH = 'src/server/plugins/engine/views'
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.test.ts
index 284fad39a..7a9cbccff 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.test.ts
@@ -9,7 +9,10 @@ import {
 } from '@defra/forms-model'
 
 import { todayAsDateOnly } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/date-helper.js'
-import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
+import {
+  FormModel,
+  getAvailableLanguages
+} from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
 import { buildFormContextRequest } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/request.js'
 import { type FormContextRequest } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 import { FormAction } from '~/src/server/routes/types.js'
@@ -145,6 +148,32 @@ describe('FormModel', () => {
       expect(model.schemaVersion).toBe(SchemaVersion.V1)
     })
 
+    it('creates translator for en-GB', () => {
+      const model = new FormModel(definition, { basePath: 'test' })
+      const { t } = model.createTranslator('en-GB')
+      expect(t('errors.title')).toBe('There is a problem')
+    })
+
+    it('translates a key using createTranslator', () => {
+      const model = new FormModel(definition, { basePath: '/test' })
+      const { t } = model.createTranslator('en-GB')
+      expect(t('errors.title')).toBe('There is a problem')
+    })
+
+    it('passes interpolation options through createTranslator', () => {
+      const model = new FormModel(definition, { basePath: '/test' })
+      const { t } = model.createTranslator('en-GB')
+      expect(t('pages.repeater.pageTitle', { count: 3 })).toBe(
+        'You have added 3 answers'
+      )
+    })
+
+    it('creates translator that resolves plugin namespace keys', () => {
+      const model = new FormModel(definition, { basePath: 'test' })
+      const { t } = model.createTranslator('en-GB')
+      expect(t('common.continue')).toBe('Continue')
+    })
+
     it.each([
       {
         input: undefined,
@@ -727,6 +756,99 @@ describe('FormModel - Joined Conditions', () => {
     })
   })
 
+  describe('FormModel.createTranslator', () => {
+    beforeEach(() => {
+      jest.spyOn(formDefinitionV2Schema, 'validate').mockReturnValue({
+        value: definitionV2,
+        error: undefined
+      })
+    })
+
+    afterEach(() => {
+      jest.restoreAllMocks()
+    })
+
+    it('returns "Continue" for t("common.continue") with en-GB language', () => {
+      const model = new FormModel(definitionV2, { basePath: 'test' })
+      const { t } = model.createTranslator('en-GB')
+      expect(t('common.continue')).toBe('Continue')
+    })
+
+    it('returns x-pirate string for t("common.continue") with x-pirate language', () => {
+      const model = new FormModel(definitionV2, { basePath: 'test' })
+      const { t } = model.createTranslator('x-pirate')
+      expect(t('common.continue')).toBe('Sail on')
+    })
+
+    it('returns the component title for tComponent with en-GB language (falls back to base en-GB form string)', () => {
+      const model = new FormModel(definitionV2, { basePath: 'test' })
+      const { tComponent } = model.createTranslator('en-GB')
+      // pages[0].components[0] has id '717eb213-4e4b-4a2d-9cfd-2780f5e1e3e5'
+      // and title 'Have you previously been married?'
+      expect(tComponent(definitionV2.pages[0].components[0], 'title')).toBe(
+        'Have you previously been married?'
+      )
+    })
+
+    it('returns the component title for tComponent with cy language (no Welsh translation registered → en-GB fallback)', () => {
+      const model = new FormModel(definitionV2, { basePath: 'test' })
+      const { tComponent } = model.createTranslator('cy')
+      // No Welsh translations registered → falls back to en-GB base form string
+      expect(tComponent(definitionV2.pages[0].components[0], 'title')).toBe(
+        'Have you previously been married?'
+      )
+    })
+
+    it('returns the form name with en-GB language (falls back to base en-GB form string)', () => {
+      const model = new FormModel(definitionV2, { basePath: 'test' })
+      const { tForm } = model.createTranslator('en-GB')
+      expect(tForm('name')).toBe('Conditions V2')
+    })
+  })
+
+  describe('getAvailableLanguages', () => {
+    it('should return list of languages, omitting unrecognised but adding english if not in list', () => {
+      const def = {
+        metadata: {
+          translations: {
+            cy: {},
+            fr: {
+              field1: 123
+            }
+          }
+        }
+      } as unknown as FormDefinition
+      expect(getAvailableLanguages(def)).toEqual([
+        { code: 'en-GB', name: 'English' },
+        { code: 'cy', name: 'Cymraeg' }
+      ])
+    })
+
+    it('should not add english if already in list', () => {
+      const def = {
+        metadata: {
+          translations: {
+            'en-GB': {
+              field1: 123
+            },
+            cy: {}
+          }
+        }
+      } as unknown as FormDefinition
+      expect(getAvailableLanguages(def)).toEqual([
+        { code: 'en-GB', name: 'English' },
+        { code: 'cy', name: 'Cymraeg' }
+      ])
+    })
+
+    it('should return empty list if no translations', () => {
+      const def = {
+        metadata: {}
+      } as unknown as FormDefinition
+      expect(getAvailableLanguages(def)).toEqual([])
+    })
+  })
+
   describe('moreThanOnePaymentQuestion', () => {
     it('should return false if no payment questions', () => {
       const model = new FormModel(definition, { basePath: 'test' })
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.ts
index 5520597ce..fb8fc2a2e 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.ts
@@ -27,6 +27,7 @@ import {
 } from '@defra/forms-model'
 import { add, format } from 'date-fns'
 import { Parser, type Value } from 'expr-eval-fork'
+import { type i18n } from 'i18next'
 import joi from 'joi'
 
 import { logger } from '~/src/server/common/helpers/logging/logger.js'
@@ -43,6 +44,12 @@ import {
   getPage,
   setPageTitles
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.js'
+import { extractBaseTranslations } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/extractBaseTranslations.js'
+import { createFormI18nInstance } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/index.js'
+import {
+  type FormDefinitionTranslations,
+  type Translator
+} from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { type ExecutableCondition } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/types.js'
 import { type PageController } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/PageController.js'
 import {
@@ -81,6 +88,7 @@ export class FormModel {
   conditions: Partial<Record<string, ExecutableCondition>>
   pages: PageControllerClass[]
   services: Services
+  private readonly i18nInstance: i18n
 
   controllers?: Record<string, typeof PageController>
   pageDefMap: Map<string, Page>
@@ -123,7 +131,19 @@ export class FormModel {
     // by joi so as not to change the source data.
     def = structuredClone(result.value)
 
-    // Add default lists
+    const baseTranslations = extractBaseTranslations(def)
+    this.i18nInstance = createFormI18nInstance(baseTranslations)
+    const formTranslations = def.metadata?.translations as
+      | FormDefinitionTranslations
+      | undefined
+    if (formTranslations) {
+      for (const [lng, resources] of Object.entries(formTranslations)) {
+        this.i18nInstance.addResourceBundle(lng, 'form', resources, true, true)
+      }
+    }
+
+    // Add default lists. Yes/No text stored as i18n key constants so they
+    // resolve to the user's language at render time via the translator.
     def.lists.push({
       id: def.schema === SchemaVersion.V1 ? yesNoListName : yesNoListId,
       name: '__yesNo',
@@ -132,12 +152,12 @@ export class FormModel {
       items: [
         {
           id: '02900d42-83d1-4c72-a719-c4e8228952fa',
-          text: 'Yes',
+          text: 'components.yesNoField.yes',
           value: true
         },
         {
           id: 'f39000eb-c51b-4019-8f82-bbda0423f04d',
-          text: 'No',
+          text: 'components.yesNoField.no',
           value: false
         }
       ]
@@ -231,6 +251,62 @@ export class FormModel {
     )
   }
 
+  /** Returns a scoped translator pair for the given language. */
+  createTranslator(language = 'en-GB'): Translator {
+    const { i18nInstance } = this
+
+    const t = (key: string, opts?: Record<string, unknown>): string =>
+      i18nInstance.t(key, { lng: language, ns: 'plugin', ...opts })
+
+    const resolveContent = (
+      entity: { id?: string },
+      entityType: string,
+      prop: string
+    ): string => {
+      if (!entity.id) {
+        const raw = (entity as Record<string, unknown>)[prop]
+        if (typeof raw !== 'string') return ''
+        // t() resolves i18next key constants (sub-field labels); returns raw string unchanged if not a key
+        return t(raw)
+      }
+      const key = `${entityType}.${entity.id}.${prop}`
+      const result = i18nInstance.t(key, {
+        lng: language,
+        ns: 'form'
+      })
+      if (result === key) {
+        // No form translation found — fall through to t(raw) so plugin i18n
+        // key constants (e.g. 'components.yesNoField.yes') are still resolved.
+        const raw = (entity as Record<string, unknown>)[prop]
+        if (typeof raw !== 'string') return ''
+        return t(raw)
+      }
+      return result
+    }
+
+    const resolveRootContent = (prop: string) => {
+      const key = `form.${prop}`
+      const translation = i18nInstance.t(key, { lng: language, ns: 'form' })
+      if (translation === key && prop in this.def) {
+        return (this.def as unknown as Record<string, string>)[prop] ?? key
+      }
+      return translation
+    }
+
+    return {
+      t,
+      tForm: (prop) => resolveRootContent(prop),
+      tPage: (entity, prop) => resolveContent(entity, 'pages', prop as string),
+      tComponent: (entity, prop) =>
+        resolveContent(entity, 'components', prop as string),
+      tSection: (entity, prop) =>
+        resolveContent(entity, 'sections', prop as string),
+      tListItem: (entity, prop) =>
+        resolveContent(entity, 'listItems', prop as string),
+      language
+    }
+  }
+
   /**
    * build the entire model schema from individual pages/sections and filter out answers
    * for pages which are no longer accessible due to an answer that has been changed
@@ -337,7 +413,8 @@ export class FormModel {
   getFormContext(
     request: FormContextRequest,
     state: FormSubmissionState,
-    errors?: FormSubmissionError[]
+    errors?: FormSubmissionError[],
+    translator?: Translator
   ): FormContext {
     const { query } = request
 
@@ -365,11 +442,13 @@ export class FormModel {
       componentDefMap: this.componentDefMap,
       pageMap: this.pageMap,
       componentMap: this.componentMap,
-      referenceNumber: getReferenceNumber(state)
+      referenceNumber: getReferenceNumber(state),
+      languages: getAvailableLanguages(this.def),
+      translator
     }
 
     // Validate current page
-    context = validateFormPayload(request, page, context)
+    context = validateFormPayload(request, page, context, translator)
 
     // Find start page
     let nextPage = findPage(this, startPath)
@@ -387,7 +466,7 @@ export class FormModel {
 
       // Stop at current page
       if (
-        this.pageStateIsInvalid(context, nextPage) ||
+        this.pageStateIsInvalid(context, nextPage, translator) ||
         nextPage.path === currentPath
       ) {
         break
@@ -448,7 +527,11 @@ export class FormModel {
     }
   }
 
-  private pageStateIsInvalid(context: FormContext, page: PageControllerClass) {
+  private pageStateIsInvalid(
+    context: FormContext,
+    page: PageControllerClass,
+    translator?: Translator
+  ) {
     // Get any list-bound fields on the page
     const listFields = page.collection.fields.filter(hasListFormField)
 
@@ -464,7 +547,7 @@ export class FormModel {
           list.items.filter((item) => item.condition).length > 0
 
         if (hasOptionalItems) {
-          return this.fieldStateIsInvalid(context, field, list)
+          return this.fieldStateIsInvalid(context, field, list, translator)
         }
       }
     }
@@ -473,7 +556,8 @@ export class FormModel {
   private fieldStateIsInvalid(
     context: FormContext,
     field: ListFormComponent,
-    list: List
+    list: List,
+    translator?: Translator
   ) {
     const { evaluationState, state } = context
 
@@ -503,8 +587,9 @@ export class FormModel {
       if (isInvalid) {
         context.errors ??= []
 
-        const text =
-          'Options are different because you changed a previous answer'
+        const text = (translator ?? this.createTranslator('en-GB')).t(
+          'errors.optionsMismatch'
+        )
 
         context.errors.push({
           text,
@@ -571,7 +656,8 @@ export class FormModel {
 function validateFormPayload(
   request: FormContextRequest,
   page: PageControllerClass,
-  context: FormContext
+  context: FormContext,
+  translator?: Translator
 ): FormContext {
   const { collection } = page
   const { payload, state } = context
@@ -601,10 +687,10 @@ function validateFormPayload(
     }
   })
 
-  const { value, errors } = collection.validate({
-    ...payload,
-    ...update
-  })
+  const { value, errors } = collection.validate(
+    { ...payload, ...update },
+    translator
+  )
 
   // Add sanitised payload (ready to save)
   const formState = page.getStateFromValidForm(request, state, value)
@@ -656,3 +742,28 @@ function getReferenceNumber(state: FormSubmissionState): string {
 
   return state.$$__referenceNumber
 }
+
+const EN_GB = 'en-GB'
+
+const allowedLanguages = {
+  [EN_GB]: 'English',
+  cy: 'Cymraeg'
+} as Record<string, string>
+
+export function getAvailableLanguages(
+  def: FormDefinition
+): { name: string; code: string }[] {
+  if (def.metadata?.translations) {
+    const translations = Object.getOwnPropertyNames(def.metadata.translations)
+    if (!translations.includes(EN_GB)) {
+      translations.unshift(EN_GB)
+    }
+    return translations
+      .filter((lang) => allowedLanguages[lang])
+      .map((lang) => ({
+        code: lang,
+        name: allowedLanguages[lang]
+      }))
+  }
+  return []
+}
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/models/SummaryViewModel.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/models/SummaryViewModel.test.ts
index 2fef463da..32964fdda 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/models/SummaryViewModel.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/models/SummaryViewModel.test.ts
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ import {
 } from '@defra/forms-model'
 
 import { FORM_PREFIX } from '~/src/server/constants.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import {
   FormModel,
   SummaryViewModel
@@ -12,6 +13,7 @@ import {
 import { SummaryPageController } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/SummaryPageController.js'
 import { buildFormContextRequest } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/request.js'
 import { serverWithSaveAndExit } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/server.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import {
   createPage,
   type PageControllerClass
@@ -134,7 +136,12 @@ describe('SummaryViewModel', () => {
     ({ state, keys, values, names, answers }) => {
       beforeEach(() => {
         context = model.getFormContext(request, state)
-        summaryViewModel = new SummaryViewModel(request, page, context)
+        summaryViewModel = new SummaryViewModel(
+          request,
+          page,
+          context,
+          stubTranslator
+        )
       })
 
       it('should add title for each section', () => {
@@ -207,7 +214,12 @@ describe('SummaryViewModel', () => {
       it('should add summary list for each section (preview URL direct access)', () => {
         request.query.force = '' // Preview URL '?force'
         context = model.getFormContext(request, state)
-        summaryViewModel = new SummaryViewModel(request, page, context)
+        summaryViewModel = new SummaryViewModel(
+          request,
+          page,
+          context,
+          stubTranslator
+        )
 
         expect(summaryViewModel.checkAnswers).toHaveLength(2)
 
@@ -252,7 +264,12 @@ describe('SummaryViewModel', () => {
       it('should use correct summary labels', () => {
         request.query.force = '' // Preview URL '?force'
         context = model.getFormContext(request, state)
-        summaryViewModel = new SummaryViewModel(request, page, context)
+        summaryViewModel = new SummaryViewModel(
+          request,
+          page,
+          context,
+          stubTranslator
+        )
 
         expect(summaryViewModel.details).toHaveLength(2)
 
@@ -316,7 +333,12 @@ describe('SummaryViewModel', () => {
 
     const page = createPage(model, definition.pages[2])
 
-    summaryViewModel = new SummaryViewModel(request, page, context)
+    summaryViewModel = new SummaryViewModel(
+      request,
+      page,
+      context,
+      stubTranslator
+    )
 
     expect(summaryViewModel.details).toHaveLength(2)
 
@@ -340,6 +362,106 @@ describe('SummaryViewModel', () => {
   })
 })
 
+describe('SummaryViewModel with per-request Translator', () => {
+  let model: FormModel
+  let page: PageControllerClass
+  let request: FormContextRequest
+  let context: FormContext
+  let mockTranslator: Translator
+
+  beforeEach(() => {
+    model = new FormModel(definition, {
+      basePath: `${FORM_PREFIX}/test`
+    })
+
+    page = createPage(model, definition.pages[2])
+    const pageUrl = new URL('http://example.com/repeat/pizza-order/summary')
+
+    request = buildFormContextRequest({
+      method: 'get',
+      url: pageUrl,
+      path: pageUrl.pathname,
+      params: {
+        path: 'pizza-order',
+        slug: 'repeat'
+      },
+      query: {},
+      app: { model }
+    })
+
+    mockTranslator = {
+      t: jest.fn().mockReturnValue('mocked'),
+      tPage: jest.fn().mockReturnValue('mocked-content') as Translator['tPage'],
+      tComponent: jest
+        .fn()
+        .mockReturnValue('mocked-content') as Translator['tComponent'],
+      tSection: jest
+        .fn()
+        .mockReturnValue('mocked-content') as Translator['tSection'],
+      tListItem: jest
+        .fn()
+        .mockReturnValue('mocked-content') as Translator['tListItem'],
+      tForm: jest.fn().mockReturnValue('mocked-content') as Translator['tForm'],
+      language: 'en-GB'
+    }
+  })
+
+  it('should use the provided translator t function for plugin keys like pages.summary.change', () => {
+    const state: FormState = {
+      $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar',
+      orderType: 'collection',
+      pizza: []
+    }
+
+    context = model.getFormContext(request, state)
+    const viewModel = new SummaryViewModel(
+      request,
+      page,
+      context,
+      mockTranslator
+    )
+    expect(viewModel).toBeDefined()
+
+    expect(mockTranslator.t).toHaveBeenCalledWith('pages.summary.change')
+  })
+
+  it('should use the provided translator t function for pages.summary.notProvided', () => {
+    const state: FormState = {
+      $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar',
+      orderType: 'collection',
+      pizza: []
+    }
+
+    context = model.getFormContext(request, state)
+    const viewModel = new SummaryViewModel(
+      request,
+      page,
+      context,
+      mockTranslator
+    )
+    expect(viewModel).toBeDefined()
+
+    expect(mockTranslator.t).toHaveBeenCalledWith('pages.summary.notProvided')
+  })
+
+  it('should use stubTranslator when no specific translation assertions needed', () => {
+    const state: FormState = {
+      $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar',
+      orderType: 'collection',
+      pizza: []
+    }
+
+    context = model.getFormContext(request, state)
+    const viewModel = new SummaryViewModel(
+      request,
+      page,
+      context,
+      stubTranslator
+    )
+    expect(viewModel).toBeDefined()
+  })
+})
+
 describe('SummaryPageController', () => {
   let model: FormModel
   let controller: SummaryPageController
@@ -379,7 +501,11 @@ describe('SummaryPageController', () => {
       }
 
       const context = model.getFormContext(request, state)
-      const viewModel = controller.getViewModel(request, context)
+      const viewModel = controller.getViewModel(
+        request,
+        context,
+        stubTranslator
+      )
 
       expect(viewModel).toHaveProperty('allowSaveAndExit', true)
     })
@@ -392,7 +518,11 @@ describe('SummaryPageController', () => {
       }
 
       const context = model.getFormContext(request, state)
-      const viewModel = controller.getSummaryViewModel(request, context)
+      const viewModel = controller.getSummaryViewModel(
+        request,
+        context,
+        stubTranslator
+      )
 
       expect(viewModel.pageTitle).toBe(
         'Check your answers before sending your form'
@@ -426,7 +556,11 @@ describe('SummaryPageController', () => {
       }
 
       const context = titleModel.getFormContext(request, state)
-      const viewModel = controller.getSummaryViewModel(request, context)
+      const viewModel = controller.getSummaryViewModel(
+        request,
+        context,
+        stubTranslator
+      )
 
       expect(viewModel.pageTitle).toBe(
         'Check your answers before sending your form'
@@ -464,7 +598,11 @@ describe('SummaryPageController', () => {
       }
 
       const context = titleModel.getFormContext(request, state)
-      const viewModel = controller.getSummaryViewModel(request, context)
+      const viewModel = controller.getSummaryViewModel(
+        request,
+        context,
+        stubTranslator
+      )
 
       expect(viewModel.pageTitle).toBe('Override summary title')
     })
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/models/SummaryViewModel.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/models/SummaryViewModel.ts
index 2aaf95f89..846336301 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/models/SummaryViewModel.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/models/SummaryViewModel.ts
@@ -1,4 +1,8 @@
-import { SchemaVersion, type Section } from '@defra/forms-model'
+import {
+  SchemaVersion,
+  type ComponentDef,
+  type Section
+} from '@defra/forms-model'
 
 import { PaymentField } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/PaymentField.js'
 import { type PaymentState } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/PaymentField.types.js'
@@ -15,6 +19,7 @@ import {
   getError,
   getPageHref
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import {
   type Detail,
   type DetailItem,
@@ -56,22 +61,29 @@ export class SummaryViewModel {
   allowSaveAndExit = false
   paymentState?: PaymentState
   paymentDetails?: CheckAnswers
+  t: (key: string, opts?: Record<string, unknown>) => string
+  private readonly _translator!: Translator
   paymentRequired?: boolean
   paymentPreAuthorized?: boolean
 
   constructor(
     request: FormContextRequest,
     page: PageControllerClass,
-    context: FormContext
+    context: FormContext,
+    translator: Translator
   ) {
     const { model } = page
     const { basePath, def, sections } = model
     const { isForceAccess } = context
 
+    const { t } = translator
+    this.t = t
+    this._translator = translator
+
     this.page = page
     this.pageTitle = page.title
     if (def.schema === SchemaVersion.V2 && !page.title) {
-      this.pageTitle = 'Check your answers before sending your form'
+      this.pageTitle = t('pages.summary.title')
     }
 
     this.serviceUrl = `/${basePath}`
@@ -85,7 +97,7 @@ export class SummaryViewModel {
 
     // Format errors
     this.errors = result.error?.details.map(getError)
-    this.details = this.summaryDetails(request, sections)
+    this.details = this.summaryDetails(request, sections, translator)
 
     // Format check answers
     this.checkAnswers = this.details.map((detail): CheckAnswers => {
@@ -98,7 +110,7 @@ export class SummaryViewModel {
         if (!isForceAccess) {
           items.push({
             href: item.href,
-            text: 'Change',
+            text: t('pages.summary.change'),
             classes: 'govuk-link--no-visited-state',
             visuallyHiddenText: item.label
           })
@@ -110,7 +122,7 @@ export class SummaryViewModel {
           },
           value: {
             classes: 'app-prose-scope',
-            html: item.value || 'Not provided'
+            html: item.value || t('pages.summary.notProvided')
           },
           actions: {
             items
@@ -125,7 +137,11 @@ export class SummaryViewModel {
     })
   }
 
-  private summaryDetails(request: FormContextRequest, sections: Section[]) {
+  private summaryDetails(
+    request: FormContextRequest,
+    sections: Section[],
+    translator: Translator
+  ) {
     const { context, errors } = this
     const { relevantPages, state } = context
 
@@ -143,10 +159,15 @@ export class SummaryViewModel {
 
         if (page instanceof RepeatPageController) {
           items.push(
-            ItemRepeat(page, state, {
-              path: page.getSummaryPath(request),
-              errors
-            })
+            ItemRepeat(
+              page,
+              state,
+              {
+                path: page.getSummaryPath(request),
+                errors
+              },
+              translator
+            )
           )
         } else {
           for (const field of collection.fields) {
@@ -154,15 +175,20 @@ export class SummaryViewModel {
             if (field instanceof PaymentField) {
               continue
             }
-            items.push(ItemField(page, state, field, { path, errors }))
+            items.push(
+              ItemField(page, state, field, { path, errors }, translator)
+            )
           }
         }
       })
 
       if (items.length) {
+        const sectionTitle = section
+          ? translator.tSection(section, 'title') || section.title
+          : undefined
         details.push({
           name: section?.name,
-          title: section?.title,
+          title: sectionTitle,
           items
         })
       }
@@ -182,19 +208,22 @@ function ItemRepeat(
   options: {
     path: string
     errors?: FormSubmissionError[]
-  }
+  },
+  translator: Translator
 ): DetailItemRepeat {
   const { collection, repeat } = page
   const { name, title } = repeat.options
 
   const values = page.getListFromState(state)
-  const unit = values.length === 1 ? 'answer' : 'answers'
+  const count = values.length
+  const value =
+    count === 0 ? '' : translator.t('pages.repeater.pageTitle', { count })
 
   return {
     name,
     label: title,
     title,
-    value: values.length ? `You have added ${values.length} ${unit}` : '',
+    value,
     href: getPageHref(page, options.path, {
       returnUrl: getPageHref(page, page.getSummaryPath())
     }),
@@ -204,7 +233,7 @@ function ItemRepeat(
     // Repeater field detail items
     subItems: values.map((repeatState) =>
       collection.fields.map((field) =>
-        ItemField(page, repeatState, field, options)
+        ItemField(page, repeatState, field, options, translator)
       )
     )
   }
@@ -221,17 +250,31 @@ export function ItemField(
   options: {
     path: string
     errors?: FormSubmissionError[]
-  }
+  },
+  translator: Translator
 ): DetailItemField {
+  // FormComponent doesn't expose shortDescription/title as raw def properties,
+  // so build a lookup object with English values to let tComponent's GUID lookup fire.
+  const fieldDef = {
+    id: field.id,
+    type: field.type,
+    shortDescription: field.label,
+    title: field.title
+  } as unknown as ComponentDef
+  const rawLabel = translator.tComponent(fieldDef, 'shortDescription')
+  const translatedLabel = rawLabel !== '' ? rawLabel : field.label
+  const rawTitle = translator.tComponent(fieldDef, 'title')
+  const translatedTitle = rawTitle !== '' ? rawTitle : field.title
+  const optional =
+    field.options.required === false
+      ? ` ${translator.t('common.optional')}`
+      : ''
   return {
     name: field.name,
-    label: field.title,
-    title:
-      field.options.required === false
-        ? `${field.summaryLabel} (optional)`
-        : field.summaryLabel,
-    error: field.getFirstError(options.errors),
-    value: getAnswer(field, state),
+    label: translatedTitle,
+    title: `${translatedLabel}${optional}`,
+    error: field.getFirstError(translator, options.errors),
+    value: getAnswer(field, state, translator, { format: 'summary' }),
     href: getPageHref(page, options.path, {
       returnUrl: getPageHref(page, page.getSummaryPath())
     }),
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/options.js b/src/server/plugins/engine/options.js
index 2c7a73520..41d8bce44 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/options.js
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/options.js
@@ -25,7 +25,8 @@ const pluginRegistrationOptionsSchema = Joi.object({
   baseUrl: Joi.string().uri().required(),
   saveAndExit: Joi.function().optional(),
   ordnanceSurveyApiKey: Joi.string().optional(),
-  ordnanceSurveyApiSecret: Joi.string().optional()
+  ordnanceSurveyApiSecret: Joi.string().optional(),
+  getLanguage: Joi.function().optional()
 })
 
 /**
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/adapter/v1.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/adapter/v1.test.ts
index b1ee81ab0..937f47528 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/adapter/v1.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/adapter/v1.test.ts
@@ -868,4 +868,33 @@ describe('Adapter v1 formatter', () => {
       expect(parsedBody.meta.versionMetadata).toBeUndefined()
     })
   })
+
+  describe('meta.language', () => {
+    const formStatus = { isPreview: false, state: FormStatus.Live }
+
+    it('includes meta.language when the form definition specifies a language', () => {
+      const welshModel = new FormModel(
+        { ...definition, metadata: { language: 'cy' } },
+        { basePath: 'test' }
+      )
+
+      const body = format(
+        context,
+        items,
+        welshModel,
+        submitResponse,
+        formStatus
+      )
+      const parsedBody = JSON.parse(body) as FormAdapterSubmissionMessagePayload
+
+      expect(parsedBody.meta.language).toBe('cy')
+    })
+
+    it('omits meta.language when the form definition has no language set', () => {
+      const body = format(context, items, model, submitResponse, formStatus)
+      const parsedBody = JSON.parse(body) as FormAdapterSubmissionMessagePayload
+
+      expect(parsedBody.meta.language).toBeUndefined()
+    })
+  })
 })
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/adapter/v1.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/adapter/v1.ts
index eb9660b5c..772cc0e7c 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/adapter/v1.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/adapter/v1.ts
@@ -49,6 +49,11 @@ export function format(
     meta.versionMetadata = versionMetadata
   }
 
+  const definitionLanguage = model.def.metadata?.language
+  if (typeof definitionLanguage === 'string') {
+    meta.language = definitionLanguage
+  }
+
   const main = Object.fromEntries(
     Object.entries(v2Main).map(([key, value]) => {
       if (value === undefined) {
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/human/v1.payment.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/human/v1.payment.test.ts
index 23b3f54ef..a714c4825 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/human/v1.payment.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/human/v1.payment.test.ts
@@ -9,10 +9,15 @@ import {
   getFormSubmissionData
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/SummaryPageController.js'
 import { buildFormContextRequest } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/request.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import { type FormSubmissionState } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 import { FormStatus } from '~/src/server/routes/types.js'
 import definitionPayment from '~/test/form/definitions/payment.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definitionPayment, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe('v1 human formatter', () => {
   describe('Payment', () => {
     const modelPayment = new FormModel(definitionPayment, {
@@ -77,12 +82,14 @@ describe('v1 human formatter', () => {
     )
     const summaryViewModelPayment = controllerPayment.getSummaryViewModel(
       requestPayment,
-      contextPayment
+      contextPayment,
+      stubTranslator
     )
 
     const itemsPayment = getFormSubmissionData(
       summaryViewModelPayment.context,
       summaryViewModelPayment.details,
+      translator,
       modelPayment
     )
 
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/human/v1.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/human/v1.test.ts
index 4089bb5d7..b4ffbb8ef 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/human/v1.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/human/v1.test.ts
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ import {
   getFormSubmissionData
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/SummaryPageController.js'
 import { buildFormContextRequest } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/request.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import { FormStatus } from '~/src/server/routes/types.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/repeat-mixed.js'
 
@@ -66,11 +67,16 @@ describe('v1 human formatter', () => {
   })
 
   const context = model.getFormContext(request, state)
-  const summaryViewModel = controller.getSummaryViewModel(request, context)
+  const summaryViewModel = controller.getSummaryViewModel(
+    request,
+    context,
+    stubTranslator
+  )
 
   const items = getFormSubmissionData(
     summaryViewModel.context,
     summaryViewModel.details,
+    stubTranslator,
     model
   )
 
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/human/v1.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/human/v1.ts
index a2e6bef13..6d72202a7 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/human/v1.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/human/v1.ts
@@ -30,6 +30,7 @@ export function format(
   formStatus: ReturnType<typeof checkFormStatus>,
   _formMetadata?: FormMetadata
 ) {
+  const translator = model.createTranslator()
   const { files } = submitResponse.result
 
   const formName = escapeMarkdown(model.name)
@@ -72,9 +73,7 @@ export function format(
       lines.push(`[${filename}](${designerUrl}/file-download/${fileId})\n`)
     } else {
       lines.push(
-        getAnswer(item.field, item.state, {
-          format: 'email'
-        })
+        getAnswer(item.field, item.state, translator, { format: 'email' })
       )
     }
 
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/machine/v1.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/machine/v1.ts
index 73907567e..c81b0b6ee 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/machine/v1.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/machine/v1.ts
@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@ import { config } from '~/src/config/index.js'
 import { getAnswer } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
 import { FileUploadField } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/index.js'
 import { type checkFormStatus } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { type FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/index.js'
 import {
   type DetailItem,
@@ -25,9 +26,10 @@ export function format(
   _formStatus: ReturnType<typeof checkFormStatus>,
   _formMetadata?: FormMetadata
 ) {
+  const translator = model.createTranslator()
   const now = new Date()
 
-  const categorisedData = categoriseData(items)
+  const categorisedData = categoriseData(items, translator)
 
   const data = {
     meta: {
@@ -68,7 +70,7 @@ export function format(
  *    }
  * }
  */
-function categoriseData(items: DetailItem[]) {
+function categoriseData(items: DetailItem[], translator: Translator) {
   const output: {
     main: Record<string, string>
     repeaters: Record<string, Record<string, string>[]>
@@ -77,11 +79,11 @@ function categoriseData(items: DetailItem[]) {
 
   items.forEach((item) => {
     if ('subItems' in item) {
-      output.repeaters[item.name] = extractRepeaters(item)
+      output.repeaters[item.name] = extractRepeaters(item, translator)
     } else if (isFileUploadFieldItem(item)) {
       output.files[item.name] = extractFileUploads(item)
     } else {
-      output.main[item.name] = getAnswer(item.field, item.state, {
+      output.main[item.name] = getAnswer(item.field, item.state, translator, {
         format: 'data'
       })
     }
@@ -95,7 +97,7 @@ function categoriseData(items: DetailItem[]) {
  * @param item - the repeater item
  * @returns the repeater item
  */
-function extractRepeaters(item: DetailItemRepeat) {
+function extractRepeaters(item: DetailItemRepeat, translator: Translator) {
   const repeaters: Record<string, string>[] = []
 
   item.subItems.forEach((inputRepeaterItem) => {
@@ -105,9 +107,8 @@ function extractRepeaters(item: DetailItemRepeat) {
       outputRepeaterItem[repeaterComponent.name] = getAnswer(
         repeaterComponent.field,
         repeaterComponent.state,
-        {
-          format: 'data'
-        }
+        translator,
+        { format: 'data' }
       )
     })
 
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/machine/v2.payment.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/machine/v2.payment.test.ts
index 35448bf2d..658584511 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/machine/v2.payment.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/machine/v2.payment.test.ts
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ import {
   getFormSubmissionData
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/SummaryPageController.js'
 import { buildFormContextRequest } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/request.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import { type FormSubmissionState } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 import { FormStatus } from '~/src/server/routes/types.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/payment.js'
@@ -75,11 +76,16 @@ const pageDef = definition.pages[2]
 
 const controller = new SummaryPageController(model, pageDef)
 
-const summaryViewModel = controller.getSummaryViewModel(request, context)
+const summaryViewModel = controller.getSummaryViewModel(
+  request,
+  context,
+  stubTranslator
+)
 
 const items = getFormSubmissionData(
   summaryViewModel.context,
   summaryViewModel.details,
+  stubTranslator,
   model
 )
 
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/machine/v2.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/machine/v2.test.ts
index 9ac6d8229..5320de027 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/machine/v2.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/outputFormatters/machine/v2.test.ts
@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@ import {
   getFormSubmissionData
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/SummaryPageController.js'
 import { buildFormContextRequest } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/request.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import {
   FileStatus,
   UploadStatus,
@@ -22,6 +23,10 @@ import {
 import { FormStatus } from '~/src/server/routes/types.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/repeat-mixed.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 const submitResponse = {
   message: 'Submit completed',
   result: {
@@ -276,11 +281,16 @@ describe('getPersonalisation', () => {
     const pageDef = definition.pages[2]
     const controller = new SummaryPageController(model, pageDef)
 
-    const summaryViewModel = controller.getSummaryViewModel(request, context)
+    const summaryViewModel = controller.getSummaryViewModel(
+      request,
+      context,
+      stubTranslator
+    )
 
     const items = getFormSubmissionData(
       summaryViewModel.context,
       summaryViewModel.details,
+      translator,
       model
     )
 
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/FileUploadPageController.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/FileUploadPageController.test.ts
index 096565ab2..95a66d11e 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/FileUploadPageController.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/FileUploadPageController.test.ts
@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@ import {
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/FileUploadPageController.js'
 import { QuestionPageController } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/QuestionPageController.js'
 import { serverWithSaveAndExit } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/server.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import * as pageHelpers from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/helpers/index.js'
 import { getFormMetadata } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/services/formsService.js'
 import * as uploadService from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/services/uploadService.js'
@@ -1309,7 +1310,8 @@ describe('FileUploadPageController', () => {
 
       const viewModel = controller.getViewModel(
         request as FormContextRequest,
-        context
+        context,
+        stubTranslator
       )
 
       expect(viewModel.uploadId).toBe('some-upload-id')
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/FileUploadPageController.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/FileUploadPageController.ts
index 184b4954e..3758220d5 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/FileUploadPageController.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/FileUploadPageController.ts
@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@ import {
   getError,
   getExponentialBackoffDelay
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { type FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/index.js'
 import { QuestionPageController } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/QuestionPageController.js'
 import { getProxyUrlForLocalDevelopment } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/helpers/index.js'
@@ -187,10 +188,12 @@ export class FileUploadPageController extends QuestionPageController {
 
       const { filename } = fileToRemove.status.form.file
 
+      const { t } = this.getTranslator(request)
+
       return h.view(this.fileDeleteViewName, {
         ...viewModel,
         context,
-        backLink: this.getBackLink(request, context),
+        backLink: this.getBackLink(request, context, t),
         pageTitle: `Are you sure you want to remove this file?`,
         itemTitle: filename,
         confirmation: { text: 'You cannot recover removed files.' },
@@ -258,14 +261,15 @@ export class FileUploadPageController extends QuestionPageController {
 
   getViewModel(
     request: FormContextRequest,
-    context: FormContext
+    context: FormContext,
+    translator: Translator
   ): FeaturedFormPageViewModel {
     const { fileUpload } = this
     const { state } = context
 
     const upload = this.getUploadFromState(state)
 
-    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(request, context)
+    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(request, context, translator)
     const { components } = viewModel
 
     // Featured form component
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/PageController.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/PageController.test.ts
index 48093dc44..06c03567a 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/PageController.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/PageController.test.ts
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ import { type ResponseToolkit } from '@hapi/hapi'
 import { FORM_PREFIX } from '~/src/server/constants.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
 import { PageController } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/PageController.js'
+import { buildFormRequest } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/request.js'
 import { serverWithSaveAndExit } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/server.js'
 import {
   type FormRequest,
@@ -139,7 +140,7 @@ describe('PageController', () => {
   describe('Route handlers', () => {
     const page1Url = new URL('http://example.com/test/licence')
 
-    const request = {
+    const request = buildFormRequest({
       method: 'get',
       url: page1Url,
       path: page1Url.pathname,
@@ -149,7 +150,7 @@ describe('PageController', () => {
       },
       query: {},
       app: { model }
-    } as FormRequest
+    } as FormRequest)
 
     const h: FormResponseToolkit = {
       redirect: jest.fn(),
@@ -204,10 +205,10 @@ describe('PageController', () => {
     })
 
     it('supports save and exit functionality', async () => {
-      const mockRequest = {
+      const mockRequest = buildFormRequest({
         ...request,
         payload: { saveAndExit: true }
-      } as FormRequest
+      } as FormRequest)
 
       const mockResponse = {
         redirect: jest.fn(),
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/PageController.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/PageController.ts
index 426bd97d4..8925da579 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/PageController.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/PageController.ts
@@ -15,9 +15,11 @@ import {
   getStartPath,
   normalisePath
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { type FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/index.js'
 import { type ExecutableCondition } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/types.js'
 import {
+  type AnyFormRequest,
   type FormContext,
   type PageViewModelBase
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
@@ -28,6 +30,7 @@ import {
   type FormRequestRefs,
   type FormResponseToolkit
 } from '~/src/server/routes/types.js'
+import { resolveLanguage } from '~/src/server/utils/utils.js'
 
 export class PageController {
   /**
@@ -161,6 +164,10 @@ export class PageController {
     return ControllerPath.Status.valueOf()
   }
 
+  protected getTranslator(request: AnyFormRequest): Translator {
+    return this.model.createTranslator(resolveLanguage(request))
+  }
+
   makeGetRouteHandler(): (
     request: FormRequest,
     context: FormContext,
@@ -168,7 +175,11 @@ export class PageController {
   ) => ReturnType<Lifecycle.Method<FormRequestRefs>> {
     return (request, context, h) => {
       const { viewModel, viewName } = this
-      return h.view(viewName, viewModel)
+      const { t } = this.getTranslator(request)
+      return h.view(viewName, {
+        ...viewModel,
+        t
+      })
     }
   }
 
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/QuestionPageController.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/QuestionPageController.test.ts
index 6dd4dcf22..d217231e0 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/QuestionPageController.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/QuestionPageController.test.ts
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 import { type PageQuestion } from '@defra/forms-model'
 
 import { getForm } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/configureEnginePlugin.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
 import { QuestionPageController } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/QuestionPageController.js'
 import {
@@ -8,6 +9,7 @@ import {
   buildFormRequest
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/request.js'
 import { serverWithSaveAndExit } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/server.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import {
   FileStatus,
   UploadStatus,
@@ -30,6 +32,10 @@ import definitionConditionsComplex from '~/test/form/definitions/conditions-comp
 import definitionConditionsDates from '~/test/form/definitions/conditions-dates.js'
 import definitionPaymentV2Conditional from '~/test/form/definitions/payment-v2-conditional.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definitionConditionsBasic, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe('QuestionPageController', () => {
   let page1: PageQuestion
   let page1Url: URL
@@ -189,12 +195,14 @@ describe('QuestionPageController', () => {
     beforeEach(() => {
       viewModel1 = controller1.getViewModel(
         requestPage1,
-        model.getFormContext(requestPage1, { $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar' })
+        model.getFormContext(requestPage1, { $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar' }),
+        stubTranslator
       )
 
       viewModel2 = controller2.getViewModel(
         requestPage2,
-        model.getFormContext(requestPage2, { $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar' })
+        model.getFormContext(requestPage2, { $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar' }),
+        stubTranslator
       )
     })
 
@@ -448,7 +456,11 @@ describe('QuestionPageController', () => {
       const context = controller.model.getFormContext(request, state)
       const evaluationState = { animalType: 'Barn owl' }
 
-      const viewModel = controller.getViewModel(request, context)
+      const viewModel = controller.getViewModel(
+        request,
+        context,
+        stubTranslator
+      )
 
       const filtered = controller.filterConditionalComponents(
         viewModel,
@@ -504,7 +516,11 @@ describe('QuestionPageController', () => {
       const context = controller.model.getFormContext(request, state)
       const evaluationState = { animalType: 'Swan' }
 
-      const viewModel = controller.getViewModel(request, context)
+      const viewModel = controller.getViewModel(
+        request,
+        context,
+        stubTranslator
+      )
 
       const filtered = controller.filterConditionalComponents(
         viewModel,
@@ -1088,12 +1104,14 @@ describe('QuestionPageController V2', () => {
     beforeEach(() => {
       viewModel1 = controller1.getViewModel(
         requestPage1,
-        model.getFormContext(requestPage1, { $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar' })
+        model.getFormContext(requestPage1, { $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar' }),
+        stubTranslator
       )
 
       viewModel2 = controller2.getViewModel(
         requestPage2,
-        model.getFormContext(requestPage2, { $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar' })
+        model.getFormContext(requestPage2, { $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar' }),
+        stubTranslator
       )
     })
 
@@ -1686,222 +1704,355 @@ describe('Save and Exit functionality', () => {
   })
 })
 
-describe('QuestionPageController V2 - PaymentField (DF-832)', () => {
+describe('QuestionPageController translator support', () => {
+  let page1: PageQuestion
+  let page1Url: URL
+
   let model: FormModel
-  let choicePage: QuestionPageController
-  let paymentPage: QuestionPageController
+  let controller1: QuestionPageController
+  let requestPage1: FormRequest
 
   beforeEach(() => {
-    model = new FormModel(definitionPaymentV2Conditional, {
+    const { pages } = definitionConditionsBasic
+
+    page1 = pages[0]
+    page1Url = new URL('http://example.com/test/first-page')
+
+    model = new FormModel(definitionConditionsBasic, {
       basePath: 'test'
     })
 
-    // Page order in fixture: choice, gated, payment, summary
-    choicePage = /** @type {QuestionPageController} */ model.pages[0]
-    paymentPage = /** @type {QuestionPageController} */ model.pages[2]
+    controller1 = new QuestionPageController(model, page1)
+
+    requestPage1 = buildFormRequest({
+      method: 'get',
+      url: page1Url,
+      path: page1Url.pathname,
+      params: {
+        path: 'first-page',
+        slug: 'test'
+      },
+      query: {},
+      app: { model }
+    } as FormRequest)
   })
 
-  describe('getNextPath', () => {
-    const buildRequest = (pathname: string) => {
-      const url = new URL(`http://example.com/test${pathname}`)
-      return buildFormRequest({
+  describe('getViewModel with translator', () => {
+    it('uses mock t from translator for plugin strings', () => {
+      const mockT = jest.fn((key: string) => `translated:${key}`)
+      const translator: Translator = {
+        t: mockT,
+        tPage: jest.fn((_, prop) => `content:${prop}`),
+        tComponent: jest.fn((_, prop) => `content:${prop}`),
+        tSection: jest.fn((_, prop) => `content:${prop}`),
+        tListItem: jest.fn((_, prop) => `content:${prop}`),
+        tForm: jest.fn((prop) => `content:${prop}`),
+        language: 'en-GB'
+      }
+
+      // Use a request with returnUrl so that getBackLink calls t() for back link text
+      const requestWithReturn = buildFormRequest({
         method: 'get',
-        url,
-        path: url.pathname,
-        params: { path: pathname.replace('/', ''), slug: 'test' },
-        query: {},
+        url: page1Url,
+        path: page1Url.pathname,
+        params: {
+          path: 'first-page',
+          slug: 'test'
+        },
+        query: { returnUrl: '/test/summary' },
         app: { model }
       } as FormRequest)
-    }
 
-    it('skips payment pages in forward navigation (users reach via CYA)', () => {
-      // From the "choice" page with "yes" answered, the gated page's
-      // condition evaluates true. Payment comes after gated, but must
-      // be skipped so the walk lands on summary.
-      const request = buildRequest('/choice')
-      const context = model.getFormContext(request, {
-        $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar',
-        yesNoField: true
+      const context = model.getFormContext(requestWithReturn, {
+        $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar'
       })
 
-      const next = choicePage.getNextPath(context)
-
-      expect(next).toBe('/gated')
+      controller1.getViewModel(requestWithReturn, context, translator)
 
-      // From the gated page the next real page would be the payment page,
-      // but forward navigation skips it and lands on summary.
-      const gatedPage = /** @type {QuestionPageController} */ model.pages[1]
-      expect(gatedPage.getNextPath(context)).toBe('/summary')
+      // The translator's t should have been called for back link text
+      expect(mockT).toHaveBeenCalledWith('pages.question.backToCheckAnswers')
     })
 
-    it('skips payment pages even when their condition would pass', () => {
-      // The payment page has no page-level condition, so only the
-      // isPaymentPage skip can cause it to be excluded.
-      const request = buildRequest('/choice')
-      const context = model.getFormContext(request, {
-        $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar',
-        yesNoField: false
+    it('uses mock tPage from translator for page entity', () => {
+      const mockT = jest.fn((key: string) => key)
+      const mockTPage = jest.fn(
+        (_entity: unknown, prop: string) => `content:${prop}`
+      )
+
+      const translator: Translator = {
+        t: mockT,
+        tPage: mockTPage as Translator['tPage'],
+        tComponent: jest.fn(() => ''),
+        tSection: jest.fn(() => ''),
+        tListItem: jest.fn(() => ''),
+        tForm: jest.fn(() => ''),
+        language: 'en-GB'
+      }
+
+      const context = model.getFormContext(requestPage1, {
+        $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar'
       })
 
-      // With "no", the gated page's condition fails so the walk from
-      // /choice should skip both /gated (condition) and /payment (payment)
-      // and land directly on the summary.
-      expect(choicePage.getNextPath(context)).toBe('/summary')
+      controller1.getViewModel(requestPage1, context, translator)
+
+      expect(mockTPage).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
+        expect.objectContaining({ path: page1.path }),
+        'title'
+      )
     })
-  })
 
-  describe('getViewModel - resolved payment amount', () => {
-    const buildPaymentRequest = () => {
-      const url = new URL('http://example.com/test/payment')
-      return buildFormRequest({
+    it('uses translator.t for back link text when translator is supplied', () => {
+      const mockT = jest.fn().mockReturnValue('Back to check answers')
+      const mockTranslatorLocal: Translator = {
+        t: mockT,
+        tPage: stubTranslator.tPage,
+        tComponent: stubTranslator.tComponent,
+        tSection: stubTranslator.tSection,
+        tListItem: stubTranslator.tListItem,
+        tForm: stubTranslator.tForm,
+        language: 'en-GB'
+      }
+
+      // Use a request with returnUrl so that getBackLink calls translator.t for back link text
+      const requestWithReturn = buildFormRequest({
         method: 'get',
-        url,
-        path: url.pathname,
-        params: { path: 'payment', slug: 'test' },
-        query: {},
+        url: page1Url,
+        path: page1Url.pathname,
+        params: {
+          path: 'first-page',
+          slug: 'test'
+        },
+        query: { returnUrl: '/test/summary' },
         app: { model }
       } as FormRequest)
-    }
 
-    it('overrides displayed amount using resolveAmount with full form state', () => {
-      // yesNoField = false selects the £99 conditional amount.
-      // The payload for the payment page on its own would not know that
-      // — the controller must reach into context.evaluationState.
-      const request = buildPaymentRequest()
-      const context = model.getFormContext(request, {
-        $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar',
-        yesNoField: false
+      const context = model.getFormContext(requestWithReturn, {
+        $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar'
       })
 
-      const viewModel = paymentPage.getViewModel(request, context)
-      const paymentComp = viewModel.components.find(
-        (c) => 'amount' in c.model && 'paymentState' in c.model
-      )
+      controller1.getViewModel(requestWithReturn, context, mockTranslatorLocal)
 
-      expect(paymentComp).toBeDefined()
-      expect(paymentComp?.model).toHaveProperty('amount', '£99.00')
+      expect(mockT).toHaveBeenCalledWith('pages.question.backToCheckAnswers')
     })
+  })
 
-    it('overrides displayed amount to £0 when zero-amount condition matches', () => {
-      // yesNoField = true selects the £0 conditional amount (first in list)
-      const request = buildPaymentRequest()
-      const context = model.getFormContext(request, {
-        $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar',
-        yesNoField: true
-      })
+  describe('QuestionPageController V2 - PaymentField (DF-832)', () => {
+    let model: FormModel
+    let choicePage: QuestionPageController
+    let paymentPage: QuestionPageController
 
-      const viewModel = paymentPage.getViewModel(request, context)
-      const paymentComp = viewModel.components.find(
-        (c) => 'amount' in c.model && 'paymentState' in c.model
-      )
+    beforeEach(() => {
+      model = new FormModel(definitionPaymentV2Conditional, {
+        basePath: 'test'
+      })
 
-      expect(paymentComp?.model).toHaveProperty('amount', '£0.00')
+      // Page order in fixture: choice, gated, payment, summary
+      choicePage = /** @type {QuestionPageController} */ model.pages[0]
+      paymentPage = /** @type {QuestionPageController} */ model.pages[2]
     })
 
-    it('falls back to base amount when no condition matches', () => {
-      // Empty state → no conditions match → base £50
-      const request = buildPaymentRequest()
-      const context = model.getFormContext(request, {
-        $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar'
-      })
+    describe('getNextPath', () => {
+      const buildRequest = (pathname: string) => {
+        const url = new URL(`http://example.com/test${pathname}`)
+        return buildFormRequest({
+          method: 'get',
+          url,
+          path: url.pathname,
+          params: { path: pathname.replace('/', ''), slug: 'test' },
+          query: {},
+          app: { model }
+        } as FormRequest)
+      }
 
-      const viewModel = paymentPage.getViewModel(request, context)
-      const paymentComp = viewModel.components.find(
-        (c) => 'amount' in c.model && 'paymentState' in c.model
-      )
+      it('skips payment pages in forward navigation (users reach via CYA)', () => {
+        // From the "choice" page with "yes" answered, the gated page's
+        // condition evaluates true. Payment comes after gated, but must
+        // be skipped so the walk lands on summary.
+        const request = buildRequest('/choice')
+        const context = model.getFormContext(request, {
+          $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar',
+          yesNoField: true
+        })
 
-      expect(paymentComp?.model).toHaveProperty('amount', '£50.00')
-    })
+        const next = choicePage.getNextPath(context)
 
-    it('suppresses Save & Exit on payment pages', () => {
-      const request = buildPaymentRequest()
-      const context = model.getFormContext(request, {
-        $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar',
-        yesNoField: false
+        expect(next).toBe('/gated')
+
+        // From the gated page the next real page would be the payment page,
+        // but forward navigation skips it and lands on summary.
+        const gatedPage = /** @type {QuestionPageController} */ model.pages[1]
+        expect(gatedPage.getNextPath(context)).toBe('/summary')
       })
 
-      const viewModel = paymentPage.getViewModel(request, context)
+      it('skips payment pages even when their condition would pass', () => {
+        // The payment page has no page-level condition, so only the
+        // isPaymentPage skip can cause it to be excluded.
+        const request = buildRequest('/choice')
+        const context = model.getFormContext(request, {
+          $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar',
+          yesNoField: false
+        })
 
-      expect(viewModel).toHaveProperty('allowSaveAndExit', false)
+        // With "no", the gated page's condition fails so the walk from
+        // /choice should skip both /gated (condition) and /payment (payment)
+        // and land directly on the summary.
+        expect(choicePage.getNextPath(context)).toBe('/summary')
+      })
     })
 
-    it('allows Save & Exit on non-payment pages', () => {
-      const url = new URL('http://example.com/test/choice')
-      const request = buildFormRequest({
-        method: 'get',
-        url,
-        path: url.pathname,
-        params: { path: 'choice', slug: 'test' },
-        query: {},
-        app: { model }
-      } as FormRequest)
+    describe('getViewModel - resolved payment amount', () => {
+      const buildPaymentRequest = () => {
+        const url = new URL('http://example.com/test/payment')
+        return buildFormRequest({
+          method: 'get',
+          url,
+          path: url.pathname,
+          params: { path: 'payment', slug: 'test' },
+          query: {},
+          app: { model }
+        } as FormRequest)
+      }
 
-      const context = model.getFormContext(request, {
-        $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar'
+      it('overrides displayed amount using resolveAmount with full form state', () => {
+        // yesNoField = false selects the £99 conditional amount.
+        // The payload for the payment page on its own would not know that
+        // — the controller must reach into context.evaluationState.
+        const request = buildPaymentRequest()
+        const context = model.getFormContext(request, {
+          $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar',
+          yesNoField: false
+        })
+
+        const viewModel = paymentPage.getViewModel(request, context, translator)
+        const paymentComp = viewModel.components.find(
+          (c) => 'amount' in c.model && 'paymentState' in c.model
+        )
+
+        expect(paymentComp).toBeDefined()
+        expect(paymentComp?.model).toHaveProperty('amount', '£99.00')
       })
 
-      // The default FormModel server may not have save-and-exit plugin
-      // loaded, so we check via shouldShowSaveAndExit being the driver
-      // rather than isPaymentPage for this page.
-      jest.spyOn(choicePage, 'shouldShowSaveAndExit').mockReturnValue(true)
+      it('overrides displayed amount to £0 when zero-amount condition matches', () => {
+        // yesNoField = true selects the £0 conditional amount (first in list)
+        const request = buildPaymentRequest()
+        const context = model.getFormContext(request, {
+          $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar',
+          yesNoField: true
+        })
 
-      const viewModel = choicePage.getViewModel(request, context)
+        const viewModel = paymentPage.getViewModel(request, context, translator)
+        const paymentComp = viewModel.components.find(
+          (c) => 'amount' in c.model && 'paymentState' in c.model
+        )
 
-      expect(viewModel).toHaveProperty('allowSaveAndExit', true)
-    })
-  })
+        expect(paymentComp?.model).toHaveProperty('amount', '£0.00')
+      })
 
-  describe('getViewModel - showSubmitButton based on paymentState', () => {
-    const buildPaymentRequest = () => {
-      const url = new URL('http://example.com/test/payment')
-      return buildFormRequest({
-        method: 'get',
-        url,
-        path: url.pathname,
-        params: { path: 'payment', slug: 'test' },
-        query: {},
-        app: { model }
-      } as FormRequest)
-    }
+      it('falls back to base amount when no condition matches', () => {
+        // Empty state → no conditions match → base £50
+        const request = buildPaymentRequest()
+        const context = model.getFormContext(request, {
+          $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar'
+        })
 
-    it('shows submit button when no payment pre-auth captured yet', () => {
-      // No paymentState on form state → hasIncompletePayment is true
-      // → showSubmitButton is false.
-      const request = buildPaymentRequest()
-      const context = model.getFormContext(request, {
-        $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar',
-        yesNoField: false
+        const viewModel = paymentPage.getViewModel(request, context, translator)
+        const paymentComp = viewModel.components.find(
+          (c) => 'amount' in c.model && 'paymentState' in c.model
+        )
+
+        expect(paymentComp?.model).toHaveProperty('amount', '£50.00')
+      })
+
+      it('suppresses Save & Exit on payment pages', () => {
+        const request = buildPaymentRequest()
+        const context = model.getFormContext(request, {
+          $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar',
+          yesNoField: false
+        })
+
+        const viewModel = paymentPage.getViewModel(request, context, translator)
+
+        expect(viewModel).toHaveProperty('allowSaveAndExit', false)
       })
 
-      const viewModel = paymentPage.getViewModel(request, context)
+      it('allows Save & Exit on non-payment pages', () => {
+        const url = new URL('http://example.com/test/choice')
+        const request = buildFormRequest({
+          method: 'get',
+          url,
+          path: url.pathname,
+          params: { path: 'choice', slug: 'test' },
+          query: {},
+          app: { model }
+        } as FormRequest)
+
+        const context = model.getFormContext(request, {
+          $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar'
+        })
+
+        // The default FormModel server may not have save-and-exit plugin
+        // loaded, so we check via shouldShowSaveAndExit being the driver
+        // rather than isPaymentPage for this page.
+        jest.spyOn(choicePage, 'shouldShowSaveAndExit').mockReturnValue(true)
+
+        const viewModel = choicePage.getViewModel(request, context, translator)
 
-      expect(viewModel).toHaveProperty('showSubmitButton', false)
+        expect(viewModel).toHaveProperty('allowSaveAndExit', true)
+      })
     })
 
-    it('shows submit button when pre-auth has a captured status', () => {
-      // The PaymentField persists paymentId/amount/description at the top
-      // of its state slot, with preAuth nested under it. preAuth.status
-      // being present means pre-auth was captured → hasIncompletePayment
-      // is false → showSubmitButton is true.
-      const request = buildPaymentRequest()
-      const context = model.getFormContext(request, {
-        $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar',
-        yesNoField: false,
-        paymentField: {
-          paymentId: 'p-1',
-          amount: 99,
-          description: 'Test payment',
-          preAuth: {
-            status: 'success',
+    describe('getViewModel - showSubmitButton based on paymentState', () => {
+      const buildPaymentRequest = () => {
+        const url = new URL('http://example.com/test/payment')
+        return buildFormRequest({
+          method: 'get',
+          url,
+          path: url.pathname,
+          params: { path: 'payment', slug: 'test' },
+          query: {},
+          app: { model }
+        } as FormRequest)
+      }
+
+      it('shows submit button when no payment pre-auth captured yet', () => {
+        // No paymentState on form state → hasIncompletePayment is true
+        // → showSubmitButton is false.
+        const request = buildPaymentRequest()
+        const context = model.getFormContext(request, {
+          $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar',
+          yesNoField: false
+        })
+
+        const viewModel = paymentPage.getViewModel(request, context, translator)
+
+        expect(viewModel).toHaveProperty('showSubmitButton', false)
+      })
+
+      it('shows submit button when pre-auth has a captured status', () => {
+        // The PaymentField persists paymentId/amount/description at the top
+        // of its state slot, with preAuth nested under it. preAuth.status
+        // being present means pre-auth was captured → hasIncompletePayment
+        // is false → showSubmitButton is true.
+        const request = buildPaymentRequest()
+        const context = model.getFormContext(request, {
+          $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar',
+          yesNoField: false,
+          paymentField: {
             paymentId: 'p-1',
-            amount: 99
+            amount: 99,
+            description: 'Test payment',
+            preAuth: {
+              status: 'success',
+              paymentId: 'p-1',
+              amount: 99
+            }
           }
-        }
-      } as unknown as FormSubmissionState)
+        } as unknown as FormSubmissionState)
 
-      const viewModel = paymentPage.getViewModel(request, context)
+        const viewModel = paymentPage.getViewModel(request, context, translator)
 
-      expect(viewModel).toHaveProperty('showSubmitButton', true)
+        expect(viewModel).toHaveProperty('showSubmitButton', true)
+      })
     })
   })
 })
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/QuestionPageController.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/QuestionPageController.ts
index 1b2398001..543650718 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/QuestionPageController.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/QuestionPageController.ts
@@ -21,7 +21,6 @@ import {
 } from '~/src/server/constants.js'
 import { ComponentCollection } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/ComponentCollection.js'
 import { PaymentField } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/PaymentField.js'
-import { optionalText } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/constants.js'
 import { type BackLink } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
 import {
   checkFormStatus,
@@ -31,6 +30,7 @@ import {
   normalisePath,
   proceed
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { type FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/index.js'
 import { PageController } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/PageController.js'
 import { prefillStateFromQueryParameters } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/helpers/state.js'
@@ -118,18 +118,28 @@ export class QuestionPageController extends PageController {
    * Used for mapping form payloads and errors to govuk-frontend's template api, so a page can be rendered
    * @param request - the hapi request
    * @param context - the form context
+   * @param translator - optional per-request translator pair
    */
   getViewModel(
     request: FormContextRequest,
-    context: FormContext
+    context: FormContext,
+    translator: Translator
   ): FormPageViewModel {
     const { collection, viewModel } = this
-    const { query } = request
     const { payload, errors } = context
 
-    let { pageTitle, showTitle } = viewModel
+    const { t, tPage, tSection } = translator
+
+    let { showTitle, sectionTitle } = viewModel
+
+    let pageTitle = tPage(this.pageDef, 'title') || viewModel.pageTitle
+
+    if (this.section) {
+      sectionTitle =
+        this.section.hideTitle !== true ? tSection(this.section, 'title') : ''
+    }
 
-    const components = collection.getViewModel(payload, errors, query)
+    const components = collection.getViewModel({ payload, errors, translator })
     const formComponents = components.filter(
       ({ isFormComponent }) => isFormComponent
     )
@@ -163,7 +173,7 @@ export class QuestionPageController extends PageController {
 
           if (pageTitle) {
             labelOrLegend.text = isOptional
-              ? `${pageTitle}${optionalText}`
+              ? `${pageTitle} ${t('common.optional')}`
               : pageTitle
           }
 
@@ -216,8 +226,10 @@ export class QuestionPageController extends PageController {
 
     return {
       ...viewModel,
-      backLink: this.getBackLink(request, context),
+      backLink: this.getBackLink(request, context, t),
       context,
+      pageTitle,
+      sectionTitle,
       showTitle,
       components,
       errors,
@@ -450,14 +462,17 @@ export class QuestionPageController extends PageController {
       const { collection, model, viewName } = this
       const { evaluationState } = context
 
+      const translator = this.getTranslator(request)
+      const { t } = translator
+
       // Copy any URL params into the form state (if not already done so)
       if (await prefillStateFromQueryParameters(request, this)) {
         // Forward to same page without query string
         return h.redirect(request.url.pathname)
       }
 
-      const viewModel = this.getViewModel(request, context)
-      viewModel.errors = collection.getViewErrors(viewModel.errors)
+      const viewModel = this.getViewModel(request, context, translator)
+      viewModel.errors = collection.getViewErrors(translator, viewModel.errors)
 
       const flashedError = request.yar.flash(COMPONENT_STATE_ERROR)
       const flashedErrors = !Array.isArray(flashedError) ? [flashedError] : []
@@ -484,7 +499,10 @@ export class QuestionPageController extends PageController {
       viewModel.hasMissingNotificationEmail =
         await this.hasMissingNotificationEmail(request, context)
 
-      return h.view(viewName, viewModel)
+      return h.view(viewName, {
+        ...viewModel,
+        t
+      })
     }
   }
 
@@ -515,7 +533,8 @@ export class QuestionPageController extends PageController {
    */
   protected getBackLink(
     request: FormContextRequest,
-    context: FormContext
+    context: FormContext,
+    t: (key: string, opts?: Record<string, unknown>) => string
   ): BackLink | undefined {
     const { pageDef } = this
     const { path, query } = request
@@ -529,8 +548,8 @@ export class QuestionPageController extends PageController {
       return {
         text:
           hasRepeater(pageDef) && itemId
-            ? 'Go back to add another'
-            : 'Go back to check answers',
+            ? t('pages.question.backToAddAnother')
+            : t('pages.question.backToCheckAnswers'),
         href: returnUrl
       }
     }
@@ -548,7 +567,7 @@ export class QuestionPageController extends PageController {
 
     // Default back link
     return {
-      text: 'Back',
+      text: t('common.back'),
       href: this.getHref(backPath)
     }
   }
@@ -563,6 +582,9 @@ export class QuestionPageController extends PageController {
       const { isForceAccess, state, evaluationState } = context
       const action = request.payload.action
 
+      const translator = this.getTranslator(request)
+      const { t } = translator
+
       if (action?.startsWith(FormAction.External)) {
         return await this.dispatchExternal(request, h, context)
       }
@@ -572,8 +594,11 @@ export class QuestionPageController extends PageController {
        * @todo Refactor to match POST REDIRECT GET pattern
        */
       if (context.errors || isForceAccess) {
-        const viewModel = this.getViewModel(request, context)
-        viewModel.errors = collection.getViewErrors(viewModel.errors)
+        const viewModel = this.getViewModel(request, context, translator)
+        viewModel.errors = collection.getViewErrors(
+          translator,
+          viewModel.errors
+        )
 
         // Filter our components based on their conditions using our evaluated state
         viewModel.components = this.filterConditionalComponents(
@@ -582,7 +607,10 @@ export class QuestionPageController extends PageController {
           evaluationState
         )
 
-        return h.view(viewName, viewModel)
+        return h.view(viewName, {
+          ...viewModel,
+          t
+        })
       }
 
       // Save state
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/RepeatPageController.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/RepeatPageController.test.ts
index b66f91e5f..d2a85c7d2 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/RepeatPageController.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/RepeatPageController.test.ts
@@ -1,3 +1,4 @@
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
 import { RepeatPageController } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/RepeatPageController.js'
 import { buildFormContextRequest } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/request.js'
@@ -5,6 +6,7 @@ import {
   server,
   serverWithSaveAndExit
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/server.js'
+import { stubTranslator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.js'
 import {
   type FormContextRequest,
   type FormPageViewModel,
@@ -135,7 +137,10 @@ describe('RepeatPageController', () => {
     beforeEach(() => {
       viewModel = controller.getViewModel(
         requestPageItem,
-        model.getFormContext(requestPageItem, { $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar' })
+        model.getFormContext(requestPageItem, {
+          $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar'
+        }),
+        stubTranslator
       )
     })
 
@@ -200,7 +205,8 @@ describe('RepeatPageController', () => {
           model.getFormContext(requestPageSummary, {
             $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar'
           }),
-          list
+          list,
+          stubTranslator
         )
       })
 
@@ -276,4 +282,110 @@ describe('RepeatPageController', () => {
       expect(controller.shouldShowSaveAndExit(serverWithSaveAndExit)).toBe(true)
     })
   })
+
+  describe('getViewModel with Translator', () => {
+    it('passes translator through to super.getViewModel without throwing', () => {
+      const mockT = jest.fn((key: string) => `translated:${key}`)
+      const translator: Translator = {
+        t: mockT,
+        tPage: jest.fn(() => ''),
+        tComponent: jest.fn(() => ''),
+        tSection: jest.fn(() => ''),
+        tListItem: jest.fn(() => ''),
+        tForm: jest.fn(() => ''),
+        language: 'en-GB'
+      }
+
+      const context = model.getFormContext(requestPageItem, {
+        $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar'
+      })
+
+      const viewModel = controller.getViewModel(
+        requestPageItem,
+        context,
+        translator
+      )
+
+      // RepeatPageController.getViewModel extends super — result must still have sectionTitle
+      expect(viewModel).toHaveProperty('sectionTitle')
+    })
+
+    it('uses translator.tPage for page title when translator is supplied', () => {
+      const mockT = jest.fn((key: string) => `translated:${key}`)
+      const mockTPage = jest.fn(() => 'translated-title')
+      const translator: Translator = {
+        t: mockT,
+        tPage: mockTPage as Translator['tPage'],
+        tComponent: jest.fn(() => ''),
+        tSection: jest.fn(() => ''),
+        tListItem: jest.fn(() => ''),
+        tForm: jest.fn(() => ''),
+        language: 'en-GB'
+      }
+
+      const context = model.getFormContext(requestPageItem, {
+        $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar'
+      })
+
+      const viewModel = controller.getViewModel(
+        requestPageItem,
+        context,
+        translator
+      )
+
+      expect(mockTPage).toHaveBeenCalled()
+      expect(viewModel).toHaveProperty('pageTitle', 'translated-title')
+    })
+  })
+
+  describe('getListSummaryViewModel with Translator', () => {
+    const list: RepeatListState = [
+      { itemId: 'abc-123', toppings: 'Ham', quantity: 2 }
+    ]
+
+    it('calls the supplied translator t for plugin strings', () => {
+      const mockT = jest.fn((key: string) => `translated:${key}`)
+      const translator: Translator = {
+        t: mockT,
+        tPage: jest.fn(() => ''),
+        tComponent: jest.fn(() => ''),
+        tSection: jest.fn(() => ''),
+        tListItem: jest.fn(() => ''),
+        tForm: jest.fn(() => ''),
+        language: 'en-GB'
+      }
+
+      const context = model.getFormContext(requestPageSummary, {
+        $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar'
+      })
+
+      const viewModel = controller.getListSummaryViewModel(
+        requestPageSummary,
+        context,
+        list,
+        translator
+      )
+
+      expect(mockT).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
+        'pages.repeater.pageTitle',
+        expect.anything()
+      )
+      expect(viewModel.pageTitle).toBe('translated:pages.repeater.pageTitle')
+    })
+
+    it('uses stubTranslator when no specific translation assertions needed', () => {
+      const context = model.getFormContext(requestPageSummary, {
+        $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar'
+      })
+
+      const viewModel = controller.getListSummaryViewModel(
+        requestPageSummary,
+        context,
+        list,
+        stubTranslator
+      )
+
+      expect(viewModel).toHaveProperty('pageTitle')
+    })
+  })
 })
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/RepeatPageController.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/RepeatPageController.ts
index e9656249c..76c5fd5de 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/RepeatPageController.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/RepeatPageController.ts
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ import Joi from 'joi'
 
 import { isRepeatState } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/FormComponent.js'
 import { redirectPath } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { type FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/index.js'
 import { QuestionPageController } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/QuestionPageController.js'
 import {
@@ -193,9 +194,20 @@ export class RepeatPageController extends QuestionPageController {
         return super.proceed(request, h, nextPath)
       }
 
-      const viewModel = this.getListSummaryViewModel(request, context, list)
+      const translator = this.getTranslator(request)
+      const { t } = translator
 
-      return h.view(this.listSummaryViewName, viewModel)
+      const viewModel = this.getListSummaryViewModel(
+        request,
+        context,
+        list,
+        translator
+      )
+
+      return h.view(this.listSummaryViewName, {
+        ...viewModel,
+        t
+      })
     }
   }
 
@@ -220,6 +232,9 @@ export class RepeatPageController extends QuestionPageController {
         return super.proceed(request, h, nextPath)
       }
 
+      const translator = this.getTranslator(request)
+      const { t } = translator
+
       const { action } = this.getFormParams(request)
 
       const hasErrorMin =
@@ -232,7 +247,6 @@ export class RepeatPageController extends QuestionPageController {
       // Show error if repeat limits apply
       if (hasErrorMin || hasErrorMax) {
         const count = hasErrorMax ? schema.max : schema.min
-        const itemTitle = `answer${count === 1 ? '' : 's'}`
 
         context.errors = [
           {
@@ -240,14 +254,22 @@ export class RepeatPageController extends QuestionPageController {
             href: '',
             name: '',
             text: hasErrorMax
-              ? `You can only add up to ${count} ${itemTitle}`
-              : `You must add at least ${count} ${itemTitle}`
+              ? t('pages.repeater.tooMany', { count })
+              : t('pages.repeater.tooFew', { count })
           }
         ]
 
-        const viewModel = this.getListSummaryViewModel(request, context, list)
+        const viewModel = this.getListSummaryViewModel(
+          request,
+          context,
+          list,
+          translator
+        )
 
-        return h.view(this.listSummaryViewName, viewModel)
+        return h.view(this.listSummaryViewName, {
+          ...viewModel,
+          t
+        })
       }
 
       if (action === FormAction.AddAnother) {
@@ -281,11 +303,14 @@ export class RepeatPageController extends QuestionPageController {
       const itemId = this.getItemId(request)
       const item = this.getItemFromList(list, itemId)
 
+      const translator = this.getTranslator(request)
+      const { t } = translator
+
       if (!item || list.length === 1) {
         throw Boom.notFound(
           item
-            ? 'Last list item cannot be removed'
-            : 'List item to remove not found'
+            ? t('pages.repeater.lastItemCannotBeRemoved')
+            : t('pages.repeater.itemToRemoveNotFound')
         )
       }
 
@@ -294,11 +319,12 @@ export class RepeatPageController extends QuestionPageController {
       return h.view(this.listDeleteViewName, {
         ...viewModel,
         context,
-        backLink: this.getBackLink(request, context),
-        pageTitle: 'Are you sure you want to remove this answer?',
+        backLink: this.getBackLink(request, context, t),
+        pageTitle: t('pages.repeater.removeAnswer'),
         itemTitle: `${title} ${list.indexOf(item) + 1}`,
-        buttonConfirm: { text: 'Remove' },
-        buttonCancel: { text: 'Cancel' }
+        buttonConfirm: { text: t('pages.repeater.remove') },
+        buttonCancel: { text: t('pages.repeater.cancel') },
+        t
       } satisfies ItemDeletePageViewModel)
     }
   }
@@ -318,11 +344,13 @@ export class RepeatPageController extends QuestionPageController {
       const itemId = this.getItemId(request)
       const item = this.getItemFromList(list, itemId)
 
+      const { t } = this.getTranslator(request)
+
       if (!item || list.length === 1) {
         throw Boom.notFound(
           item
-            ? 'Last list item cannot be removed'
-            : 'List item to remove not found'
+            ? t('pages.repeater.lastItemCannotBeRemoved')
+            : t('pages.repeater.itemToRemoveNotFound')
         )
       }
 
@@ -343,7 +371,8 @@ export class RepeatPageController extends QuestionPageController {
 
   getViewModel(
     request: FormContextRequest,
-    context: FormContext
+    context: FormContext,
+    translator: Translator
   ): FormPageViewModel {
     const { state } = context
 
@@ -351,7 +380,7 @@ export class RepeatPageController extends QuestionPageController {
     const itemId = this.getItemId(request)
     const item = this.getItemFromList(list, itemId)
 
-    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(request, context)
+    const viewModel = super.getViewModel(request, context, translator)
     const itemNumber = item ? list.indexOf(item) + 1 : list.length + 1
     const repeatCaption = `${this.repeat.options.title} ${itemNumber}`
 
@@ -367,12 +396,15 @@ export class RepeatPageController extends QuestionPageController {
   getListSummaryViewModel(
     request: FormContextRequest,
     context: FormContext,
-    list: RepeatListState
+    list: RepeatListState,
+    translator: Translator
   ): RepeaterSummaryPageViewModel {
     const { collection, href, repeat } = this
     const { query } = request
     const { isForceAccess, errors } = context
 
+    const { t } = translator
+
     const { title } = repeat.options
 
     const summaryList: SummaryList = {
@@ -396,9 +428,11 @@ export class RepeatPageController extends QuestionPageController {
             href: redirectPath(`${href}/${item.itemId}`, {
               returnUrl: query.returnUrl ?? this.getHref(summaryPath)
             }),
-            text: 'Change',
+            text: t('pages.repeater.change'),
             classes: 'govuk-link--no-visited-state',
-            visuallyHiddenText: `item ${index + 1}`
+            visuallyHiddenText: t('pages.repeater.visuallyHiddenItem', {
+              index: index + 1
+            })
           })
 
           if (count > 1) {
@@ -406,15 +440,17 @@ export class RepeatPageController extends QuestionPageController {
               href: redirectPath(`${href}/${item.itemId}/confirm-delete`, {
                 returnUrl: query.returnUrl
               }),
-              text: 'Remove',
+              text: t('pages.repeater.remove'),
               classes: 'govuk-link--no-visited-state',
-              visuallyHiddenText: `item ${index + 1}`
+              visuallyHiddenText: t('pages.repeater.visuallyHiddenItem', {
+                index: index + 1
+              })
             })
           }
         }
 
         const itemDisplayText = collection.fields.length
-          ? collection.fields[0].getDisplayStringFromState(item)
+          ? collection.fields[0].getDisplayStringFromState(item, translator)
           : ''
 
         summaryList.rows.push({
@@ -422,7 +458,7 @@ export class RepeatPageController extends QuestionPageController {
             text: `${title} ${index + 1}`
           },
           value: {
-            text: itemDisplayText || 'Not provided'
+            text: itemDisplayText || t('pages.repeater.notProvided')
           },
           actions: {
             items
@@ -431,13 +467,11 @@ export class RepeatPageController extends QuestionPageController {
       })
     }
 
-    const unit = count === 1 ? 'answer' : 'answers'
-
     return {
       ...this.viewModel,
-      backLink: this.getBackLink(request, context),
+      backLink: this.getBackLink(request, context, t),
       repeatTitle: title,
-      pageTitle: `You have added ${count} ${unit}`,
+      pageTitle: t('pages.repeater.pageTitle', { count }),
       showTitle: true,
       context,
       errors,
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/StartPageController.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/StartPageController.ts
index db4403916..4365ec939 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/StartPageController.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/StartPageController.ts
@@ -1,3 +1,4 @@
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { QuestionPageController } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/QuestionPageController.js'
 import { type FormContext } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
 import { type FormRequest } from '~/src/server/routes/types.js'
@@ -11,9 +12,13 @@ export class StartPageController extends QuestionPageController {
 
   allowSaveAndExit = false
 
-  getViewModel(request: FormRequest, context: FormContext) {
+  getViewModel(
+    request: FormRequest,
+    context: FormContext,
+    translator: Translator
+  ) {
     return {
-      ...super.getViewModel(request, context),
+      ...super.getViewModel(request, context, translator),
       isStartPage: true
     }
   }
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/StatusPageController.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/StatusPageController.ts
index fddee7f67..f9e6e4c7e 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/StatusPageController.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/StatusPageController.ts
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ import {
   type FormRequest,
   type FormResponseToolkit
 } from '~/src/server/routes/types.js'
+import { resolveLanguage } from '~/src/server/utils/utils.js'
 
 export class StatusPageController extends QuestionPageController {
   declare pageDef: PageStatus
@@ -32,6 +33,10 @@ export class StatusPageController extends QuestionPageController {
     ) => {
       const { viewModel, viewName } = this
 
+      const language = resolveLanguage(request)
+      const translator = this.model.createTranslator(language)
+      const { t } = translator
+
       const cacheService = getCacheService(request.server)
       const confirmationState = await cacheService.getConfirmationState(request)
 
@@ -58,7 +63,8 @@ export class StatusPageController extends QuestionPageController {
         submissionGuidance,
         formName,
         showReferenceNumber: this.showReferenceNumber,
-        referenceNumber: confirmationState.referenceNumber
+        referenceNumber: confirmationState.referenceNumber,
+        t
       })
     }
   }
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/SummaryPageController.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/SummaryPageController.test.ts
index 86677bb59..d7d9df8bc 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/SummaryPageController.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/SummaryPageController.test.ts
@@ -1,3 +1,4 @@
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
 import {
   SummaryPageController,
@@ -14,6 +15,10 @@ import { type CacheService } from '~/src/server/services/cacheService.js'
 import definition from '~/test/form/definitions/basic.js'
 import definitionPaymentV2Conditional from '~/test/form/definitions/payment-v2-conditional.js'
 
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
+
 describe('SummaryPageController', () => {
   let model: FormModel
   let controller: SummaryPageController
@@ -90,6 +95,52 @@ describe('SummaryPageController', () => {
 
   // Note: InvalidComponentStateError handling is comprehensively tested
   // in the integration test: test/form/component-state-errors.test.js
+
+  describe('per-request translator in makeGetRouteHandler', () => {
+    it('should create a per-request translator and pass t to the view', async () => {
+      const mockTranslator: Translator = {
+        t: jest.fn().mockReturnValue('translated'),
+        tPage: jest.fn().mockReturnValue('content') as Translator['tPage'],
+        tComponent: jest
+          .fn()
+          .mockReturnValue('content') as Translator['tComponent'],
+        tSection: jest
+          .fn()
+          .mockReturnValue('content') as Translator['tSection'],
+        tListItem: jest
+          .fn()
+          .mockReturnValue('content') as Translator['tListItem'],
+        tForm: jest.fn().mockReturnValue('content') as Translator['tForm'],
+        language: 'en-GB'
+      }
+
+      const createTranslatorSpy = jest
+        .spyOn(model, 'createTranslator')
+        .mockReturnValue(mockTranslator)
+
+      // Mock model.services.formsService so hasMissingNotificationEmail does not throw
+      jest
+        .spyOn(model.services.formsService, 'getFormMetadata')
+        .mockResolvedValue({ notificationEmail: 'test@test.com' } as never)
+
+      const state: FormSubmissionState = {
+        $$__referenceNumber: 'foobar',
+        licenceLength: 365,
+        fullName: 'John Smith'
+      }
+
+      const context = model.getFormContext(requestPage, state)
+
+      const getHandler = controller.makeGetRouteHandler()
+      await getHandler(requestPage, context, h)
+
+      expect(createTranslatorSpy).toHaveBeenCalledWith('en-GB')
+      expect(h.view).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
+        expect.any(String),
+        expect.objectContaining({ t: mockTranslator.t })
+      )
+    })
+  })
 })
 
 describe('SummaryPageController - Payment (DF-832)', () => {
@@ -375,7 +426,7 @@ describe('SummaryPageController - Payment (DF-832)', () => {
       const request = {
         ...requestPage,
         params: { ...requestPage.params, path: 'summary' },
-        yar: { id: 'session-id' },
+        yar: { id: 'session-id', set: jest.fn(), get: jest.fn() },
         logger: { info: jest.fn(), error: jest.fn() }
       } as unknown as FormRequestPayload
 
@@ -413,7 +464,8 @@ describe('SummaryPageController - Payment (DF-832)', () => {
           request,
           viewModel,
           model,
-          'notify@example.com'
+          'notify@example.com',
+          translator
         )
       ).rejects.toMatchObject({
         name: 'PaymentSubmissionError'
@@ -434,7 +486,8 @@ describe('SummaryPageController - Payment (DF-832)', () => {
           request,
           viewModel,
           model,
-          'notify@example.com'
+          'notify@example.com',
+          translator
         )
       ).rejects.toBe(err)
     })
@@ -454,7 +507,8 @@ describe('SummaryPageController - Payment (DF-832)', () => {
         request,
         viewModel,
         model,
-        'notify@example.com'
+        'notify@example.com',
+        translator
       )
       // eslint-disable-next-line @typescript-eslint/no-unsafe-member-access
       const paymentCall = formSubmissionSubmit.mock.calls[0][0]
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/SummaryPageController.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/SummaryPageController.ts
index fdd088fee..6ebbac02e 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/SummaryPageController.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/SummaryPageController.ts
@@ -20,6 +20,7 @@ import {
   createError,
   getCacheService
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import {
   SummaryViewModel,
   type FormModel
@@ -89,11 +90,13 @@ export class SummaryPageController extends QuestionPageController {
 
   getSummaryViewModel(
     request: FormContextRequest,
-    context: FormContext
+    context: FormContext,
+    translator: Translator
   ): SummaryViewModel {
-    const viewModel = new SummaryViewModel(request, this, context)
+    const { t } = translator
+
+    const viewModel = new SummaryViewModel(request, this, context, translator)
 
-    const { query } = request
     const { payload, errors, state } = context
 
     const paymentField = this.findPaymentField()
@@ -110,7 +113,8 @@ export class SummaryPageController extends QuestionPageController {
         viewModel.paymentState = paymentState
         viewModel.paymentDetails = this.buildPaymentDetails(
           paymentField,
-          paymentState
+          paymentState,
+          t
         )
       }
 
@@ -126,9 +130,13 @@ export class SummaryPageController extends QuestionPageController {
       }
     }
 
-    const components = this.collection.getViewModel(payload, errors, query)
+    const components = this.collection.getViewModel({
+      payload,
+      errors,
+      translator
+    })
 
-    viewModel.backLink = this.getBackLink(request, context)
+    viewModel.backLink = this.getBackLink(request, context, t)
     viewModel.feedbackLink = this.feedbackLink
     viewModel.phaseTag = this.phaseTag
     viewModel.components = components
@@ -142,32 +150,33 @@ export class SummaryPageController extends QuestionPageController {
     paymentField: PaymentField,
     paymentState: NonNullable<
       ReturnType<PaymentField['getPaymentStateFromState']>
-    >
+    >,
+    t: (key: string, opts?: Record<string, unknown>) => string
   ) {
     const rows = [
       {
-        key: { text: 'Payment for' },
+        key: { text: t('pages.summary.paymentFor') },
         value: { text: paymentState.description }
       },
       {
-        key: { text: 'Total amount' },
+        key: { text: t('pages.summary.totalAmount') },
         value: { text: formatCurrency(paymentState.amount) }
       },
       {
-        key: { text: 'Reference' },
+        key: { text: t('pages.summary.reference') },
         value: { text: paymentState.reference }
       }
     ]
 
     if (paymentState.preAuth?.createdAt) {
       rows.push({
-        key: { text: 'Date of payment' },
+        key: { text: t('pages.summary.dateOfPayment') },
         value: { text: formatPaymentDate(paymentState.preAuth.createdAt) }
       })
     }
 
     return {
-      title: { text: 'Payment details' },
+      title: { text: t('pages.summary.paymentDetailsTitle') },
       summaryList: { rows }
     }
   }
@@ -183,6 +192,9 @@ export class SummaryPageController extends QuestionPageController {
     ) => {
       const { viewName } = this
 
+      const translator = this.getTranslator(request)
+      const { t } = translator
+
       // After GOV.UK Pay callback, auto-submit the form instead of
       // showing CYA again. The payment is already pre-authorized.
       if (request.query.paymentComplete === 'true') {
@@ -195,11 +207,12 @@ export class SummaryPageController extends QuestionPageController {
 
       await this.reconcilePaymentState(request, context)
 
-      const viewModel = this.getSummaryViewModel(request, context)
+      const viewModel = this.getSummaryViewModel(request, context, translator)
 
       viewModel.hasMissingNotificationEmail =
         await this.hasMissingNotificationEmail(request, context)
 
+      viewModel.t = t
       return h.view(viewName, viewModel)
     }
   }
@@ -270,7 +283,8 @@ export class SummaryPageController extends QuestionPageController {
     checkEmailAddressForLiveFormSubmission(notificationEmail, isPreview)
 
     if (notificationEmail) {
-      const viewModel = this.getSummaryViewModel(request, context)
+      const translator = this.getTranslator(request)
+      const viewModel = this.getSummaryViewModel(request, context, translator)
 
       try {
         await submitForm(
@@ -279,7 +293,8 @@ export class SummaryPageController extends QuestionPageController {
           request,
           viewModel,
           model,
-          notificationEmail
+          notificationEmail,
+          translator
         )
       } catch (error) {
         return this.handleSubmissionError(error, request, h)
@@ -388,12 +403,17 @@ export class SummaryPageController extends QuestionPageController {
     request: FormRequestPayload,
     h: FormResponseToolkit
   ) {
+    const { t } = this.getTranslator(request)
+
     const helpUrl = error.helpLink ?? DEFAULT_PAYMENT_HELP_URL
-    const helpLinkHtml = ` or you can <a href="${helpUrl}" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" class="govuk-link">contact us (opens in new tab)</a> and quote your reference number to arrange a refund`
+    const contactUsLink = `<a href="${helpUrl}" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" class="govuk-link">${t('pages.summary.contactUsLinkText')}</a>`
+    const helpLinkHtml = t('pages.summary.submissionFailedContactSuffix', {
+      contactUsLink
+    })
 
     const govukError = createError(
       'submission',
-      `There was a problem and your form was not submitted. Try submitting the form again${helpLinkHtml}.`
+      `${t('pages.summary.submissionFailed')}${helpLinkHtml}.`
     )
 
     request.yar.flash(COMPONENT_STATE_ERROR, govukError, true)
@@ -420,7 +440,8 @@ export async function submitForm(
   request: FormRequestPayload,
   summaryViewModel: SummaryViewModel,
   model: FormModel,
-  emailAddress: string
+  emailAddress: string,
+  translator: Translator
 ) {
   await finaliseComponents(request, formMetadata, context, model)
 
@@ -434,6 +455,7 @@ export async function submitForm(
   const items = getFormSubmissionData(
     summaryViewModel.context,
     summaryViewModel.details,
+    translator,
     model
   )
 
@@ -443,7 +465,8 @@ export async function submitForm(
       model,
       items,
       emailAddress,
-      request.yar.id
+      request.yar.id,
+      translator
     )
 
     if (submitResponse === undefined) {
@@ -521,7 +544,8 @@ function submitData(
   model: FormModel,
   items: DetailItem[],
   retrievalKey: string,
-  sessionId: string
+  sessionId: string,
+  translator: Translator
 ) {
   const { formSubmissionService } = model.services
   const { submit } = formSubmissionService
@@ -529,8 +553,8 @@ function submitData(
   const payload: SubmitPayload = {
     sessionId,
     retrievalKey,
-    main: buildMainRecords(items),
-    repeaters: buildRepeaterRecords(items)
+    main: buildMainRecords(items, translator),
+    repeaters: buildRepeaterRecords(items, translator)
   }
   return submit(payload)
 }
@@ -538,6 +562,7 @@ function submitData(
 export function getFormSubmissionData(
   context: FormContext,
   details: Detail[],
+  translator: Translator,
   model: FormModel
 ) {
   const items = context.relevantPages
@@ -548,7 +573,7 @@ export function getFormSubmissionData(
     )
     .flat()
 
-  const paymentItems = getPaymentFieldItems(context, model)
+  const paymentItems = getPaymentFieldItems(context, translator, model)
 
   return [...items, ...paymentItems]
 }
@@ -559,6 +584,7 @@ export function getFormSubmissionData(
  */
 function getPaymentFieldItems(
   context: FormContext,
+  translator: Translator,
   model: FormModel
 ): DetailItemField[] {
   const items: DetailItemField[] = []
@@ -574,7 +600,7 @@ function getPaymentFieldItems(
           field,
           state: context.state,
           href: page.href,
-          value: field.getDisplayStringFromState(context.state)
+          value: field.getDisplayStringFromState(context.state, translator)
         })
       }
     }
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.ts
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..585f79fdf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/__stubs__/translator.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+import { t as resolveKey } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/index.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
+
+/**
+ * Shared Translator stub for tests where translation content is not the focus.
+ * Uses the real English i18n keys so tests that assert on English text still pass.
+ * Each tX function resolves the entity's property via the real English t() so
+ * i18n key constants (e.g. 'components.yesNoField.yes') resolve to their English
+ * values ("Yes") rather than being returned verbatim.
+ */
+function resolveEntity(entity: unknown, prop: string): string {
+  if (typeof entity !== 'object' || entity === null) return ''
+  const raw =
+    ((entity as Record<string, unknown>)[prop] as string | undefined) ?? ''
+  if (!raw) return ''
+  return resolveKey(raw, 'en-GB') || raw
+}
+
+export const stubTranslator: Translator = {
+  t: (key: string, opts?: Record<string, unknown>) =>
+    resolveKey(key, 'en-GB', opts),
+  tForm: (prop) => resolveEntity({}, prop),
+  tPage: (entity, prop) => resolveEntity(entity, prop as string),
+  tComponent: (entity, prop) => resolveEntity(entity, prop as string),
+  tSection: (entity, prop) => resolveEntity(entity, prop as string),
+  tListItem: (entity, prop) => resolveEntity(entity, prop as string),
+  language: 'en-GB'
+}
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/errors.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/errors.ts
index ef9986cac..eb072e747 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/errors.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/errors.ts
@@ -65,12 +65,14 @@ export class PaymentSubmissionError extends Error {
   static checkPaymentAmount(
     stateAmount: number,
     expectedAmount: number | undefined,
-    component: FormComponent
+    component: FormComponent,
+    t: (key: string) => string
   ) {
     if (stateAmount / 100 !== expectedAmount) {
+      const message = t('components.paymentField.paymentAmountMismatch')
       throw new PaymentPreAuthError(
         component,
-        'The pre-authorised payment amount is somehow different from that requested. Try adding payment details again.',
+        message,
         true,
         PaymentErrorTypes.PaymentIncomplete
       )
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/helpers/submission.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/helpers/submission.test.ts
index c17a7aacc..db605875e 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/helpers/submission.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/helpers/submission.test.ts
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@ import { GeospatialField } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/Geospati
 import { PaymentField } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/PaymentField.js'
 import { TextField } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/TextField.js'
 import { validSingleState } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/__stubs__/geospatial.js'
+import { FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/index.js'
 import { type DetailItemField } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/types.js'
 import {
   buildMainRecords,
@@ -9,6 +10,11 @@ import {
   buildRepeaterRecords
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/helpers/submission.js'
 import { type FormSubmissionState } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
+import { definition } from '~/test/fixtures/form.js'
+
+const translator = new FormModel(definition, {
+  basePath: '/'
+}).createTranslator()
 
 describe('Submission helpers', () => {
   describe('buildPaymentRecords', () => {
@@ -123,7 +129,7 @@ describe('Submission helpers', () => {
 
   describe('buildMainRecords', () => {
     it('should return empty array for empty items', () => {
-      const result = buildMainRecords([])
+      const result = buildMainRecords([], translator)
       expect(result).toEqual([])
     })
 
@@ -145,7 +151,7 @@ describe('Submission helpers', () => {
         }
       ] as unknown as DetailItemField[]
 
-      const result = buildMainRecords(items)
+      const result = buildMainRecords(items, translator)
 
       expect(result).toHaveLength(1)
       expect(result[0]).toEqual({
@@ -183,7 +189,7 @@ describe('Submission helpers', () => {
         }
       ] as unknown as DetailItemField[]
 
-      const result = buildMainRecords(items)
+      const result = buildMainRecords(items, translator)
 
       expect(result).toHaveLength(4)
       expect(result.map((r) => r.name)).toEqual([
@@ -233,7 +239,7 @@ describe('Submission helpers', () => {
         }
       ] as unknown as DetailItemField[]
 
-      const result = buildMainRecords(items)
+      const result = buildMainRecords(items, translator)
 
       // 1 regular field + 4 payment fields = 5 records
       expect(result).toHaveLength(5)
@@ -248,9 +254,10 @@ describe('Submission helpers', () => {
         subItems: [[]]
       }
 
-      const result = buildMainRecords([
-        repeaterItem as unknown as DetailItemField
-      ])
+      const result = buildMainRecords(
+        [repeaterItem as unknown as DetailItemField],
+        translator
+      )
 
       expect(result).toEqual([])
     })
@@ -272,7 +279,7 @@ describe('Submission helpers', () => {
         }
       ] as unknown as DetailItemField[]
 
-      const result = buildMainRecords(items)
+      const result = buildMainRecords(items, translator)
 
       expect(result).toHaveLength(1)
       expect(result).toEqual([
@@ -303,7 +310,7 @@ describe('Submission helpers', () => {
         }
       ] as unknown as DetailItemField[]
 
-      const result = buildMainRecords(items)
+      const result = buildMainRecords(items, translator)
 
       expect(result).toHaveLength(1)
       expect(result).toEqual([
@@ -329,7 +336,10 @@ describe('Submission helpers', () => {
         }
       ]
 
-      const result = buildRepeaterRecords(items as unknown as DetailItemField[])
+      const result = buildRepeaterRecords(
+        items as unknown as DetailItemField[],
+        translator
+      )
 
       expect(result).toEqual([])
     })
@@ -360,7 +370,10 @@ describe('Submission helpers', () => {
         }
       ]
 
-      const result = buildRepeaterRecords(items as unknown as DetailItemField[])
+      const result = buildRepeaterRecords(
+        items as unknown as DetailItemField[],
+        translator
+      )
 
       expect(result).toHaveLength(1)
       expect(result[0].name).toBe('addresses')
@@ -393,7 +406,7 @@ describe('Submission helpers', () => {
         }
       ] as unknown as DetailItemField[]
 
-      const result = buildRepeaterRecords(items)
+      const result = buildRepeaterRecords(items, translator)
 
       expect(result).toHaveLength(1)
       expect(result).toEqual([
@@ -440,7 +453,7 @@ describe('Submission helpers', () => {
         }
       ] as unknown as DetailItemField[]
 
-      const result = buildRepeaterRecords(items)
+      const result = buildRepeaterRecords(items, translator)
 
       expect(result).toHaveLength(1)
       expect(result).toEqual([
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/helpers/submission.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/helpers/submission.ts
index f2974d2ec..0a080ee60 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/helpers/submission.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/helpers/submission.ts
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ import { type SubmitPayload } from '@defra/forms-model'
 import { GeospatialField } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/GeospatialField.js'
 import { PaymentField } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/PaymentField.js'
 import { getAnswer } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/components.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import {
   type DetailItem,
   type DetailItemField
@@ -23,7 +24,10 @@ export interface SubmitRecord {
  * Regular fields are converted to single records, while PaymentField
  * components are expanded into four separate records.
  */
-export function buildMainRecords(items: DetailItem[]): SubmitRecord[] {
+export function buildMainRecords(
+  items: DetailItem[],
+  translator: Translator
+): SubmitRecord[] {
   const fieldItems = items.filter(
     (item): item is DetailItemField => 'field' in item
   )
@@ -46,7 +50,7 @@ export function buildMainRecords(items: DetailItem[]): SubmitRecord[] {
       records.push({
         name: item.name,
         title: item.label,
-        value: getAnswer(item.field, item.state, { format: 'data' })
+        value: getAnswer(item.field, item.state, translator, { format: 'data' })
       })
     }
   }
@@ -102,7 +106,8 @@ export function buildPaymentRecords(item: DetailItemField): SubmitRecord[] {
  * Builds the repeater submission records from repeater items.
  */
 export function buildRepeaterRecords(
-  items: DetailItem[]
+  items: DetailItem[],
+  translator: Translator
 ): SubmitPayload['repeaters'] {
   return items
     .filter((item) => 'subItems' in item)
@@ -119,7 +124,9 @@ export function buildRepeaterRecords(
             const formValue = subItem.field.getFormValueFromState(subItem.state)
             value = formValue === undefined ? '' : JSON.stringify(formValue)
           } else {
-            value = getAnswer(subItem.field, subItem.state, { format: 'data' })
+            value = getAnswer(subItem.field, subItem.state, translator, {
+              format: 'data'
+            })
           }
 
           return {
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..a4bde9a7c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+import {
+  messageTemplate,
+  messages,
+  validationOptions
+} from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.js'
+
+describe('validationOptions', () => {
+  it('messageTemplate.required is a JoiExpression object', () => {
+    expect(typeof messageTemplate.required).toBe('object')
+  })
+
+  it('messageTemplate.max is a plain string', () => {
+    expect(messageTemplate.max).toBe(
+      '{{#label}} must be {{#limit}} characters or less'
+    )
+  })
+
+  it('messages maps string.base to messageTemplate.required', () => {
+    expect(messages['string.base']).toBe(messageTemplate.required)
+  })
+
+  it('validationOptions has abortEarly: false', () => {
+    expect(validationOptions.abortEarly).toBe(false)
+  })
+})
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.ts
index c2fb9e482..b2c521808 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/validationOptions.ts
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 // Declaration above is needed for: https://github.com/hapijs/joi/issues/3064
 
-import joi, {
-  type JoiExpression,
+import {
   type LanguageMessages,
   type LanguageMessagesExt,
   type ReferenceOptions,
@@ -9,6 +8,11 @@ import joi, {
 } from 'joi'
 
 import { lowerFirstPreserveProperNouns } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/helpers/index.js'
+import {
+  buildValidationMessages,
+  type ValidationMessages
+} from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/buildValidationMessages.js'
+import { t } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/index.js'
 
 export const opts = {
   functions: {
@@ -17,58 +21,13 @@ export const opts = {
 } as ReferenceOptions
 
 /**
- * see @link https://joi.dev/api/?v=17.4.2#template-syntax for template syntax
+ * Module-level English message templates — built via the same factory used per-form.
+ * Components that have not yet been migrated to use model.validationMessages still
+ * import messageTemplate directly and get the English version.
  */
-export const messageTemplate: Record<string, JoiExpression> = {
-  declarationRequired: joi.expression(
-    'You must confirm you understand and agree with the {{lowerFirst(#label)}} to continue',
-    opts
-  ) as JoiExpression,
-  required: joi.expression(
-    'Enter {{lowerFirst(#label)}}',
-    opts
-  ) as JoiExpression,
-  selectRequired: joi.expression(
-    'Select {{lowerFirst(#label)}}',
-    opts
-  ) as JoiExpression,
-  selectYesNoRequired: '{{#label}} - select yes or no',
-  max: '{{#label}} must be {{#limit}} characters or less',
-  min: '{{#label}} must be {{#limit}} characters or more',
-  minMax: '{{#label}} must be between {{#min}} and {{#max}} characters',
-  pattern: joi.expression(
-    'Enter a valid {{lowerFirst(#label)}}',
-    opts
-  ) as JoiExpression,
-  format: joi.expression(
-    'Enter {{lowerFirst(#label)}} in the correct format',
-    opts
-  ) as JoiExpression,
-  unicode: '{{#label}} includes invalid characters, for example, long dashes',
-  number: '{{#label}} must be a number',
-  numberPrecision: '{{#label}} must have {{#limit}} or fewer decimal places',
-  numberInteger: '{{#label}} must be a whole number',
-  numberMin: '{{#label}} must be {{#limit}} or higher',
-  numberMax: '{{#label}} must be {{#limit}} or lower',
-  maxWords: '{{#label}} must be {{#limit}} words or fewer',
-
-  // Nested fields use component title
-
-  objectRequired: joi.expression('Enter {{#label}}', opts) as JoiExpression,
-  objectMissing: joi.expression(
-    '{{#title}} must include a {{lowerFirst(#label)}}',
-    opts
-  ) as JoiExpression,
-  dateFormat: '{{#title}} must be a real date',
-  dateMin: '{{#title}} must be the same as or after {{#limit}}',
-  dateMax: '{{#title}} must be the same as or before {{#limit}}',
-  arrayMin: 'Select at least {{#limit}} options from the list',
-  arrayMax: 'Only {{#limit}} can be selected from the list',
-  arrayLength: 'Select only {{#limit}} options from the list',
-  featuresMin: 'Define at least {{#limit}} features',
-  featuresMax: 'Only {{#limit}} features can be defined',
-  featuresLength: 'Define exactly {{#limit}} features'
-}
+export const messageTemplate: ValidationMessages = buildValidationMessages(
+  (key) => t(key, 'en-GB')
+)
 
 export const messages: LanguageMessagesExt = {
   'string.base': messageTemplate.required,
@@ -105,6 +64,37 @@ export const messages: LanguageMessagesExt = {
 export const messagesPre: LanguageMessages =
   messages as unknown as LanguageMessages
 
+export function buildLanguageMessages(
+  t: (key: string) => string
+): LanguageMessages {
+  const vm = buildValidationMessages(t)
+  return {
+    'string.base': vm.required,
+    'string.min': vm.min,
+    'string.empty': vm.required,
+    'string.max': vm.max,
+    'string.email': vm.format,
+    'string.pattern.base': vm.pattern,
+    'string.maxWords': vm.maxWords,
+    'number.base': vm.number,
+    'number.precision': vm.numberPrecision,
+    'number.integer': vm.numberInteger,
+    'number.unsafe': vm.format,
+    'number.min': vm.numberMin,
+    'number.max': vm.numberMax,
+    'object.required': vm.objectRequired,
+    'object.and': vm.objectMissing,
+    'any.only': vm.selectRequired,
+    'any.required': vm.selectRequired,
+    'any.empty': vm.required,
+    'date.base': vm.dateFormat,
+    'date.format': vm.dateFormat,
+    'date.min': vm.dateMin,
+    'date.max': vm.dateMax,
+    'object.invalidjson': vm.format
+  } as unknown as LanguageMessages
+}
+
 export const validationOptions: ValidationOptions = {
   abortEarly: false,
   messages: messagesPre,
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/plugin.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/plugin.ts
index fb715d23d..941f63bd6 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/plugin.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/plugin.ts
@@ -36,6 +36,7 @@ export const plugin = {
       model,
       cache,
       saveAndExit,
+      getLanguage,
       nunjucks: nunjucksOptions,
       viewContext,
       preparePageEventRequestOptions,
@@ -78,6 +79,7 @@ export const plugin = {
     server.expose('viewContext', viewContext)
     server.expose('cacheService', cacheService)
     server.expose('saveAndExit', saveAndExit)
+    server.expose('getLanguage', getLanguage)
     server.expose('baseUrl', baseUrl)
     server.expose('services', services)
 
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/routes/index.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/routes/index.test.ts
index fedbfeb83..1dde54696 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/routes/index.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/routes/index.test.ts
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ import {
   findPage,
   getCacheService,
   getPage,
+  getPluginOptions,
   proceed
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.js'
 import { type FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/FormModel.js'
@@ -36,15 +37,24 @@ function buildMockModel(
       isForceAccess: false,
       data: {}
     }),
+    createTranslator: jest.fn().mockReturnValue({
+      t: jest.fn(),
+      tPage: jest.fn(),
+      tComponent: jest.fn(),
+      tSection: jest.fn(),
+      tListItem: jest.fn(),
+      tForm: jest.fn(),
+      language: 'en-GB'
+    }),
     pages: pagesControllerOverride,
     services: servicesOverride
   } as unknown as FormModel
 }
 
 describe('redirectOrMakeHandler', () => {
-  const mockServer = {} as unknown as Parameters<
-    typeof redirectOrMakeHandler
-  >[0]['server']
+  const mockServer = {
+    plugins: { 'forms-engine-plugin': {} }
+  } as unknown as Parameters<typeof redirectOrMakeHandler>[0]['server']
   const mockRequest: AnyFormRequest = {
     server: mockServer,
     app: {},
@@ -94,6 +104,7 @@ describe('redirectOrMakeHandler', () => {
     ;(getCacheService as jest.Mock).mockReturnValue({
       getFlash: jest.fn().mockReturnValue({ errors: [] })
     })
+    ;(getPluginOptions as jest.Mock).mockReturnValue({})
     ;(getPage as jest.Mock).mockReturnValue(mockPage)
     ;(findPage as jest.Mock).mockReturnValue({ next: [] })
     ;(proceed as jest.Mock).mockReturnValue({ statusCode: 302 })
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/routes/index.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/routes/index.ts
index de05dcb5b..e39d5e555 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/routes/index.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/routes/index.ts
@@ -43,6 +43,7 @@ import {
   type FormRequest,
   type FormResponseToolkit
 } from '~/src/server/routes/types.js'
+import { resolveLanguage } from '~/src/server/utils/utils.js'
 
 export async function redirectOrMakeHandler(
   request: AnyFormRequest,
@@ -82,7 +83,14 @@ export async function redirectOrMakeHandler(
   state = await importExternalComponentState(request, page, state)
 
   const flash = cacheService.getFlash(request)
-  const context = model.getFormContext(request, state, flash?.errors)
+  const language = resolveLanguage(request)
+  const translator = model.createTranslator(language)
+  const context = model.getFormContext(
+    request,
+    state,
+    flash?.errors,
+    translator
+  )
 
   await copyNotYetValidatedState(request, context)
 
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/routes/questions.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/routes/questions.test.ts
index 53737db67..43de7de81 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/routes/questions.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/routes/questions.test.ts
@@ -65,8 +65,17 @@ describe('makeGetHandler', () => {
 
     const modelMock = {
       basePath: 'some-base-path',
-      def: { name: 'Hello world' }
-    } as FormModel
+      def: { name: 'Hello world' },
+      createTranslator: jest.fn().mockReturnValue({
+        t: jest.fn(),
+        tPage: jest.fn(),
+        tComponent: jest.fn(),
+        tSection: jest.fn(),
+        tListItem: jest.fn(),
+        tForm: jest.fn(),
+        language: 'en-GB'
+      })
+    } as unknown as FormModel
 
     const pageMock = createMockPageController(
       modelMock,
@@ -83,6 +92,7 @@ describe('makeGetHandler', () => {
     const contextMock = { data: {}, model: {} } as unknown as FormContext
 
     const requestMock = {
+      server: { plugins: { 'forms-engine-plugin': {} } },
       params: { path: 'some-path' },
       app: { model: modelMock }
     } as FormRequest
@@ -106,8 +116,17 @@ describe('makeGetHandler', () => {
 
     const modelMock = {
       basePath: 'some-base-path',
-      def: { name: 'Hello world' }
-    } as FormModel
+      def: { name: 'Hello world' },
+      createTranslator: jest.fn().mockReturnValue({
+        t: jest.fn(),
+        tPage: jest.fn(),
+        tComponent: jest.fn(),
+        tSection: jest.fn(),
+        tListItem: jest.fn(),
+        tForm: jest.fn(),
+        language: 'en-GB'
+      })
+    } as unknown as FormModel
 
     const pageMock = createMockPageController(
       modelMock,
@@ -126,6 +145,7 @@ describe('makeGetHandler', () => {
     const contextMock = { data: {}, model: {} } as unknown as FormContext
 
     const requestMock = {
+      server: { plugins: { 'forms-engine-plugin': {} } },
       params: { path: 'some-path' },
       app: { model: modelMock }
     } as FormRequest
@@ -147,8 +167,17 @@ describe('makeGetHandler', () => {
 
     const modelMock = {
       basePath: 'some-base-path',
-      def: { name: 'Hello world' }
-    } as FormModel
+      def: { name: 'Hello world' },
+      createTranslator: jest.fn().mockReturnValue({
+        t: jest.fn(),
+        tPage: jest.fn(),
+        tComponent: jest.fn(),
+        tSection: jest.fn(),
+        tListItem: jest.fn(),
+        tForm: jest.fn(),
+        language: 'en-GB'
+      })
+    } as unknown as FormModel
 
     const pageMock = createMockPageController(
       modelMock,
@@ -164,6 +193,7 @@ describe('makeGetHandler', () => {
     const contextMock = { data: {}, model: {} } as unknown as FormContext
 
     const requestMock = {
+      server: { plugins: { 'forms-engine-plugin': {} } },
       params: { path: 'some-path' },
       app: {}
     } as FormRequest
@@ -196,8 +226,17 @@ describe('makeGetHandler', () => {
     const onRequestCallback = jest.fn().mockResolvedValue(undefined)
     const modelMock = {
       basePath: 'some-base-path',
-      def: { name: 'Hello world' }
-    } as FormModel
+      def: { name: 'Hello world' },
+      createTranslator: jest.fn().mockReturnValue({
+        t: jest.fn(),
+        tPage: jest.fn(),
+        tComponent: jest.fn(),
+        tSection: jest.fn(),
+        tListItem: jest.fn(),
+        tForm: jest.fn(),
+        language: 'en-GB'
+      })
+    } as unknown as FormModel
 
     const pageMock = createMockPageController(
       modelMock,
@@ -213,6 +252,7 @@ describe('makeGetHandler', () => {
     const contextMock = { data: {}, model: {} } as unknown as FormContext
 
     const requestMock = {
+      server: { plugins: { 'forms-engine-plugin': {} } },
       params: { path: 'some-path' },
       app: { model: modelMock }
     } as FormRequest
@@ -262,8 +302,17 @@ describe('makePostHandler', () => {
 
     const modelMock = {
       basePath: 'some-base-path',
-      def: { name: 'Hello world' }
-    } as FormModel
+      def: { name: 'Hello world' },
+      createTranslator: jest.fn().mockReturnValue({
+        t: jest.fn(),
+        tPage: jest.fn(),
+        tComponent: jest.fn(),
+        tSection: jest.fn(),
+        tListItem: jest.fn(),
+        tForm: jest.fn(),
+        language: 'en-GB'
+      })
+    } as unknown as FormModel
 
     const pageMock = createMockPageController(
       modelMock,
@@ -280,6 +329,7 @@ describe('makePostHandler', () => {
     const contextMock = { data: {}, model: {} } as unknown as FormContext
 
     const requestMock = {
+      server: { plugins: { 'forms-engine-plugin': {} } },
       params: { path: 'some-path' },
       app: { model: modelMock },
       payload: { some: 'payload' }
@@ -301,8 +351,17 @@ describe('makePostHandler', () => {
   it('does not call the callback when the events.onSave.type is not http', async () => {
     const modelMock = {
       basePath: 'some-base-path',
-      def: { name: 'Hello world' }
-    } as FormModel
+      def: { name: 'Hello world' },
+      createTranslator: jest.fn().mockReturnValue({
+        t: jest.fn(),
+        tPage: jest.fn(),
+        tComponent: jest.fn(),
+        tSection: jest.fn(),
+        tListItem: jest.fn(),
+        tForm: jest.fn(),
+        language: 'en-GB'
+      })
+    } as unknown as FormModel
 
     const pageMock = createMockPageController(
       modelMock,
@@ -320,6 +379,7 @@ describe('makePostHandler', () => {
     const contextMock = { data: {}, model: {} } as unknown as FormContext
 
     const requestMock = {
+      server: { plugins: { 'forms-engine-plugin': {} } },
       params: { path: 'some-path' },
       app: { model: modelMock },
       payload: { some: 'payload' }
@@ -344,8 +404,17 @@ describe('makePostHandler', () => {
 
     const modelMock = {
       basePath: 'some-base-path',
-      def: { name: 'Hello world' }
-    } as FormModel
+      def: { name: 'Hello world' },
+      createTranslator: jest.fn().mockReturnValue({
+        t: jest.fn(),
+        tPage: jest.fn(),
+        tComponent: jest.fn(),
+        tSection: jest.fn(),
+        tListItem: jest.fn(),
+        tForm: jest.fn(),
+        language: 'en-GB'
+      })
+    } as unknown as FormModel
 
     const pageMock = createMockPageController(
       modelMock,
@@ -362,6 +431,7 @@ describe('makePostHandler', () => {
     const contextMock = { data: {}, model: {} } as unknown as FormContext
 
     const requestMock = {
+      server: { plugins: { 'forms-engine-plugin': {} } },
       params: { path: 'some-path' },
       app: { model: modelMock },
       payload: { some: 'payload' }
@@ -384,8 +454,17 @@ describe('makePostHandler', () => {
 
     const modelMock = {
       basePath: 'some-base-path',
-      def: { name: 'Hello world' }
-    } as FormModel
+      def: { name: 'Hello world' },
+      createTranslator: jest.fn().mockReturnValue({
+        t: jest.fn(),
+        tPage: jest.fn(),
+        tComponent: jest.fn(),
+        tSection: jest.fn(),
+        tListItem: jest.fn(),
+        tForm: jest.fn(),
+        language: 'en-GB'
+      })
+    } as unknown as FormModel
 
     const pageMock = createMockPageController(
       modelMock,
@@ -401,6 +480,7 @@ describe('makePostHandler', () => {
     const contextMock = { data: {}, model: {} } as unknown as FormContext
 
     const requestMock = {
+      server: { plugins: { 'forms-engine-plugin': {} } },
       params: { path: 'some-path' },
       app: {},
       payload: { some: 'payload' }
@@ -434,8 +514,17 @@ describe('makePostHandler', () => {
     const onRequestCallback = jest.fn().mockResolvedValue(undefined)
     const modelMock = {
       basePath: 'some-base-path',
-      def: { name: 'Hello world' }
-    } as FormModel
+      def: { name: 'Hello world' },
+      createTranslator: jest.fn().mockReturnValue({
+        t: jest.fn(),
+        tPage: jest.fn(),
+        tComponent: jest.fn(),
+        tSection: jest.fn(),
+        tListItem: jest.fn(),
+        tForm: jest.fn(),
+        language: 'en-GB'
+      })
+    } as unknown as FormModel
 
     const pageMock = createMockPageController(
       modelMock,
@@ -451,6 +540,7 @@ describe('makePostHandler', () => {
     const contextMock = { data: {}, model: {} } as unknown as FormContext
 
     const requestMock = {
+      server: { plugins: { 'forms-engine-plugin': {} } },
       params: { path: 'some-path' },
       app: { model: modelMock },
       payload: { some: 'payload' }
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/routes/questions.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/routes/questions.ts
index 374e471d9..07283ad76 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/routes/questions.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/routes/questions.ts
@@ -44,6 +44,7 @@ import {
   stateSchema
 } from '~/src/server/schemas/index.js'
 import * as httpService from '~/src/server/services/httpService.js'
+import { resolveLanguage } from '~/src/server/utils/utils.js'
 
 async function handleHttpEvent(
   request: AnyFormRequest,
@@ -58,10 +59,13 @@ async function handleHttpEvent(
 
   // TODO: Update structured data POST payload with when helper
   // is updated to removing the dependency on `SummaryViewModel` etc.
-  const viewModel = new SummaryViewModel(request, page, context)
+  const language = resolveLanguage(request)
+  const translator = model.createTranslator(language)
+  const viewModel = new SummaryViewModel(request, page, context, translator)
   const items = getFormSubmissionData(
     viewModel.context,
     viewModel.details,
+    translator,
     model
   )
 
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/services/localFormsService.js b/src/server/plugins/engine/services/localFormsService.js
index 8bf8c6680..3915952ce 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/services/localFormsService.js
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/services/localFormsService.js
@@ -58,6 +58,13 @@ export const formsService = async () => {
     slug: 'simple-form'
   })
 
+  await loader.addForm('src/server/forms/simple-form-pirate.yaml', {
+    ...metadata,
+    id: 'a1b2c3d4-e5f6-7890-abcd-ef0123456790',
+    title: 'Simple Form (Pirate)',
+    slug: 'simple-form-pirate'
+  })
+
   await loader.addForm('src/server/forms/payment-test.yaml', {
     ...metadata,
     id: 'b2c3d4e5-f6a7-8901-bcde-f01234567890',
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/types.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/types.ts
index 9d9fecd75..0870502f2 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/types.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/types.ts
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 import {
   type ComponentDef,
   type Event,
+  type FormMetadata,
   type FormVersionMetadata,
   type Item,
   type List,
@@ -31,6 +32,7 @@ import {
   type LatLongState,
   type MonthYearState
 } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/components/types.js'
+import { type Translator } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/types.js'
 import { type FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/index.js'
 import { type DetailItemField } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/types.js'
 import { type PageController } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/PageController.js'
@@ -199,6 +201,8 @@ export interface FormContext {
   pageMap: Map<string, PageControllerClass>
   componentMap: Map<string, Component>
   referenceNumber: string
+  languages: { name: string; code: string }[]
+  translator: Translator | undefined
 }
 
 export type FormContextRequest = (
@@ -394,6 +398,7 @@ export interface PageViewModelBase extends Partial<ViewContext> {
   feedbackLink?: string
   serviceUrl: string
   phaseTag?: string
+  t?: (key: string, opts?: Record<string, unknown>) => string
 }
 
 export interface ItemDeletePageViewModel extends PageViewModelBase {
@@ -510,6 +515,7 @@ export interface PluginOptions {
   viewContext: PluginProperties['forms-engine-plugin']['viewContext']
   preparePageEventRequestOptions?: PreparePageEventRequestOptions
   onRequest?: OnRequestCallback
+  getLanguage?: (request: AnyFormRequest, metadata?: FormMetadata) => string
   baseUrl: string // base URL of the application, protocol and hostname e.g. "https://myapp.com"
   ordnanceSurveyApiKey?: string
   ordnanceSurveyApiSecret?: string
@@ -526,6 +532,7 @@ export interface FormAdapterSubmissionMessageMeta {
   isPreview: boolean
   notificationEmail: string
   versionMetadata?: FormVersionMetadata
+  language?: string
   custom?: Record<string, unknown>
 }
 
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/types/schema.test.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/types/schema.test.ts
index a77c9257a..65c4988e4 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/types/schema.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/types/schema.test.ts
@@ -126,6 +126,28 @@ describe('Schema validation', () => {
       )
       expect(error).toBeDefined()
     })
+
+    it('should validate meta with optional language', () => {
+      const { error } = formAdapterSubmissionMessageMetaSchema.validate({
+        ...validMeta,
+        language: 'cy'
+      })
+      expect(error).toBeUndefined()
+    })
+
+    it('should validate meta without language', () => {
+      const { error } =
+        formAdapterSubmissionMessageMetaSchema.validate(validMeta)
+      expect(error).toBeUndefined()
+    })
+
+    it('should reject non-string language', () => {
+      const { error } = formAdapterSubmissionMessageMetaSchema.validate({
+        ...validMeta,
+        language: 123
+      })
+      expect(error).toBeDefined()
+    })
   })
 
   describe('formAdapterSubmissionMessageDataSchema', () => {
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/types/schema.ts b/src/server/plugins/engine/types/schema.ts
index b7d18f600..af4c53dc2 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/types/schema.ts
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/types/schema.ts
@@ -32,6 +32,7 @@ export const formAdapterSubmissionMessageMetaSchema =
     isPreview: Joi.boolean().required(),
     notificationEmail: notificationEmailAddressSchema.required(),
     versionMetadata: formVersionMetadataSchema.optional(),
+    language: Joi.string().optional(),
     custom: Joi.object()
       .pattern(/^/, Joi.any())
       .unknown()
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/_location-field-base.html b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/_location-field-base.html
index 5fdc3f4ec..aa293b61e 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/_location-field-base.html
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/_location-field-base.html
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@
   {% set detailsHtml %}
     {% if component.model.instructionText %}
       {{ govukDetails({
-        summaryText: "How to find location details",
+        summaryText: t('components.locationFieldBase.howToFind'),
         html: component.model.instructionText | markdown | safe,
         classes: "govuk-!-margin-top-3"
       }) }}
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/fileuploadfield.html b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/fileuploadfield.html
index 2c1187396..c2fb4f3fe 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/fileuploadfield.html
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/fileuploadfield.html
@@ -4,9 +4,9 @@
   {% set upload = component.model.upload %}
 
   <div id="uploadedFilesContainer">
-    <h2 class="govuk-heading-m">Uploaded files</h2>
+    <h2 class="govuk-heading-m">{{ t('components.fileUploadField.uploadedFilesHeading') }}</h2>
     {% if upload.count %}
-      <p class="govuk-body" role="alert">{{upload.count}} file{{ "s" if upload.count > 1}} uploaded</p>
+      <p class="govuk-body" role="alert">{{ t('components.fileUploadField.filesCount', { count: upload.count }) }}</p>
       <p class="govuk-body">
       </p>
 
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ <h2 class="govuk-heading-m">Uploaded files</h2>
         {{ govukSummaryList(upload.summaryList) }}
       {% endif %}
     {% else %}
-      <p class="govuk-body">{{upload.count}} files uploaded</p>
+      <p class="govuk-body">{{ t('components.fileUploadField.filesCount', { count: upload.count }) }}</p>
     {% endif %}
   </div>
 {% endmacro %}
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/nationalgridfieldnumberfield.html b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/nationalgridfieldnumberfield.html
index 6611b6337..25eceaf52 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/nationalgridfieldnumberfield.html
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/nationalgridfieldnumberfield.html
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
 
     {% if component.model.instructionText %}
       {{ govukDetails({
-        summaryText: "How to find location details",
+        summaryText: t('components.nationalGridField.howToFind'),
         html: component.model.instructionText | markdown | safe,
         classes: "govuk-!-margin-top-3"
       }) }}
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/osgridreffield.html b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/osgridreffield.html
index 3f1ff7203..6c15957e6 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/osgridreffield.html
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/osgridreffield.html
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@
 
     {% if component.model.instructionText %}
       {{ govukDetails({
-        summaryText: "How to find location details",
+        summaryText: t('components.osGridRefField.howToFind'),
         html: component.model.instructionText | markdown | safe,
         classes: "govuk-!-margin-top-3"
       }) }}
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/paymentfield.html b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/paymentfield.html
index 7eafaf07f..7f0bf8c8f 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/paymentfield.html
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/paymentfield.html
@@ -11,27 +11,27 @@
   <div class="app-payment-field">
     {% if isPreAuthorised %}
       {# Payment already pre-authorised - show confirmation message #}
-      <h2 class="govuk-heading-m">You have already authorised a payment for this form</h2>
+      <h2 class="govuk-heading-m">{{ t('components.paymentField.preAuthorisedTitle') }}</h2>
 
-      <p class="govuk-body">Continue to submit the form. You will not be charged twice.</p>
+      <p class="govuk-body">{{ t('components.paymentField.preAuthorisedBody') }}</p>
     {% else %}
       {# No pre-authorisation - show payment form #}
-      <h2 class="govuk-heading-m">{{ model.label.text if model.label and model.label.text else "Payment details required" }}</h2>
+      <h2 class="govuk-heading-m">{{ model.label.text if model.label and model.label.text else t('components.paymentField.detailsRequired') }}</h2>
 
       <p class="govuk-body">{{ description }}</p>
 
       {{ govukWarningText({
-        text: "You may see a pending transaction in your bank account but you will only be charged when you submit the form.",
-        iconFallbackText: "Warning"
+        text: t('components.paymentField.pendingTransaction'),
+        iconFallbackText: t('common.warningIconFallback')
       }) }}
 
-      <p class="govuk-body">You can submit the form after you have added your payment details.</p>
+      <p class="govuk-body">{{ t('components.paymentField.canSubmitAfterPayment') }}</p>
 
-      <p class="govuk-body govuk-!-margin-bottom-1">Total amount:</p>
+      <p class="govuk-body govuk-!-margin-bottom-1">{{ t('components.paymentField.totalAmountLabel') }}</p>
       <p class="govuk-heading-l govuk-!-margin-bottom-4 govuk-!-padding-top-0">{{ amount }}</p>
 
       {{ govukButton({
-        text: "Add payment details",
+        text: t('components.paymentField.addPaymentDetails'),
         attributes: {
           name: "action",
           value: "external-" + model.name
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/ukaddressfield.html b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/ukaddressfield.html
index aef9cddbf..ef2af33f5 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/ukaddressfield.html
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/components/ukaddressfield.html
@@ -37,13 +37,13 @@
 
         {% if value %}
           {% set insetHtml %}
-            <strong>Selected address:</strong>
+            <strong>{{ t('components.addressField.selectedAddress') }}</strong>
             <br><br>
             {{ value }}
             <br><br>
             <p class="govuk-body">
               <button class="govuk-link govuk-button--link govuk-!-margin-right-1" name="action"
-                value="external-{{component.model.name}}">Use a different address</button>
+                value="external-{{component.model.name}}">{{ t('components.addressField.useDifferentAddress') }}</button>
             </p>
           {% endset %}
 
@@ -54,14 +54,14 @@
         {% else %}
           <div class="govuk-button-group govuk-!-margin-bottom-0">
             {{ govukButton({
-              text: "Find an address",
+              text: t('components.addressField.findAddress'),
               attributes: {
                 name: "action",
                 value: "external-" + component.model.name
               },
               classes: "govuk-button--secondary govuk-!-margin-right-1 govuk-!-margin-bottom-0"
             }) }}
-            <p class="govuk-body govuk-!-margin-bottom-0">or <button class="govuk-link govuk-button--link govuk-!-margin-right-1 govuk-!-margin-bottom-0" name="action" value="external-{{component.model.name}}--step:manual">enter address manually</button></p>
+            <p class="govuk-body govuk-!-margin-bottom-0">or <button class="govuk-link govuk-button--link govuk-!-margin-right-1 govuk-!-margin-bottom-0" name="action" value="external-{{component.model.name}}--step:manual">{{ t('components.addressField.enterManually') }}</button></p>
           </div>
           {# Include a line break if this is the last component #}
           {% if components[components.length - 1] == component %}
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/confirmation.html b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/confirmation.html
index d7df811d9..c3cf1d9b8 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/confirmation.html
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/confirmation.html
@@ -9,15 +9,15 @@
     <div class="govuk-grid-column-two-thirds">
       {{ govukPanel({
         titleText: pageTitle,
-        html: "Your reference number<br><strong>" + referenceNumber + "</strong>" if showReferenceNumber
+        html: t('pages.confirmation.referenceNumber') + "<br><strong>" + referenceNumber + "</strong>" if showReferenceNumber
       }) }}
-      <h2 class="govuk-heading-m">What happens next</h2>
+      <h2 class="govuk-heading-m">{{ t('pages.confirmation.whatHappensNext') }}</h2>
       <div class="app-prose-scope">
         {{ submissionGuidance | markdown(3) | safe }}
       </div>
       {% if feedbackLink %}
         <p class="govuk-body">
-          <a href="{{ feedbackLink }}" class="govuk-link govuk-link--no-visited-state">What do you think of this service?</a> (takes 30 seconds)
+          <a href="{{ feedbackLink }}" class="govuk-link govuk-link--no-visited-state">{{ t('pages.confirmation.feedbackLink') }}</a>
         </p>
       {% endif %}
     </div>
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/exit.html b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/exit.html
index 20030e6d7..54c9b09ea 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/exit.html
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/exit.html
@@ -9,17 +9,17 @@
   <div class="govuk-grid-row">
     <div class="govuk-grid-column-two-thirds">
       {{ govukPanel({
-        titleText: pageTitle or "Your progress has been saved"
+        titleText: pageTitle or t('pages.exit.defaultTitle')
       }) }}
 
-      <h2 class="govuk-heading-m">What happens next</h2>
+      <h2 class="govuk-heading-m">{{ t('pages.exit.whatHappensNext') }}</h2>
       <div class="app-prose-scope">
-        <p class="govuk-body">Your form progress has been saved. You can return to complete your application at any time using the link provided.</p>
+        <p class="govuk-body">{{ t('pages.exit.body') }}</p>
 
         {% if returnUrl %}
           <p class="govuk-body">
             {{ govukButton({
-              text: "Return to application",
+              text: t('pages.exit.returnToApplication'),
               href: returnUrl,
               classes: "govuk-button--secondary"
             }) }}
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/file-upload.html b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/file-upload.html
index ac3658d66..8ef4f30d2 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/file-upload.html
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/file-upload.html
@@ -14,15 +14,15 @@
 
     {% if formAction %}
       {{ govukButton({
-        text: "Upload file",
+        text: t('pages.fileUpload.upload'),
         classes: "govuk-button--secondary upload-file-button",
         preventDoubleClick: true,
         disabled: context.isForceAccess
       }) }}
     {% else %}
       {{ govukWarningText({
-        text: "You have reached the maximum number of files. Please remove a file to upload more.",
-        iconFallbackText: "Warning"
+        text: t('pages.fileUpload.maxFilesReached'),
+        iconFallbackText: t('common.warningIconFallback')
       }) }}
     {% endif %}
   </form>
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/index.html b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/index.html
index 2c142e569..ddd2b3c93 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/index.html
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/index.html
@@ -13,14 +13,14 @@
 
       {% if showPaymentExpiredNotification %}
         {{ govukNotificationBanner({
-          titleText: "Important",
-          html: '<h3 class="govuk-notification-banner__heading">Your payment has been cancelled</h3><p class="govuk-body">Your payment details were deleted because the form was inactive for 5 days.</p><p class="govuk-body">Add your payment details again.</p>'
+          titleText: t('pages.question.paymentCancelledBannerTitle'),
+          html: '<h3 class="govuk-notification-banner__heading">' + t('pages.question.paymentCancelledTitle') + '</h3><p class="govuk-body">' + t('pages.question.paymentCancelledBody') + '</p><p class="govuk-body">' + t('pages.question.paymentCancelledAction') + '</p>'
         }) }}
       {% endif %}
 
       {% if errors | length and not showPaymentExpiredNotification %}
         {{ govukErrorSummary({
-          titleText: "There is a problem",
+          titleText: t('errors.title'),
           errorList: checkErrorTemplates(errors)
         }) }}
       {% endif %}
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/item-delete.html b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/item-delete.html
index a2ad2d2a5..c656aec7f 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/item-delete.html
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/item-delete.html
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@
 
       {% if errors %}
         {{ govukErrorSummary({
-          titleText: "There is a problem",
+          titleText: t('errors.title'),
           errorList: errors
         }) }}
       {% endif %}
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/partials/form.html b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/partials/form.html
index 95a0d95ad..cdeaf8976 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/partials/form.html
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/partials/form.html
@@ -20,11 +20,11 @@
   {{ componentList(components) }}
 
   {% if isStartPage %}
-    {% set buttonText = "Start now" %}
+    {% set buttonText = t('pages.question.startNow') %}
   {% elif submitButtonText %}
     {% set buttonText = submitButtonText %}
   {% else %}
-    {% set buttonText = "Continue" %}
+    {% set buttonText = t('common.continue') %}
   {% endif %}
 
   <div class="govuk-button-group">
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@
 
     {% if allowSaveAndExit %}
       {{ govukButton({
-        text: "Save and exit",
+        text: t('common.saveAndExit'),
         classes: "govuk-button--secondary",
         name: "action",
         value: "save-and-exit",
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/partials/preview-banner.html b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/partials/preview-banner.html
index 66dfb75e6..3d4cc427b 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/partials/preview-banner.html
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/partials/preview-banner.html
@@ -9,23 +9,23 @@
 {%- endmacro -%}
 
 {% call govukNotificationBanner() %}
+  {% set previewModeTranslated = t('common.' + previewMode) %}
   {% if not context.isForceAccess %}
     <p class="govuk-notification-banner__heading govuk-!-margin-bottom-0">
-      This is a preview of a {{ previewMode }} form. Do not enter personal information.
+      {{ t('pages.preview.bannerForce', { previewMode: previewModeTranslated }) }}
     </p>
 
     {{ _closeLink() }}
   {% else %}
     <p class="govuk-notification-banner__heading govuk-!-margin-bottom-0">
-      This is a preview of a {{ previewMode }} form page you are editing.
+      {{ t('pages.preview.bannerText', { previewMode: previewModeTranslated }) }}
     </p>
 
     {{ _closeLink() }}
 
     {% if hasPreviousPages %}
       <p class="govuk-body govuk-!-margin-top-2">
-        It depends on answers from earlier pages in the form. In the live
-        version, users will need to complete those questions first.
+        {{ t('pages.preview.previousPages') }}
       </p>
     {% endif %}
   {% endif %}
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/partials/warn-missing-notification-email.html b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/partials/warn-missing-notification-email.html
index b478c7ce9..3e3870957 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/partials/warn-missing-notification-email.html
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/partials/warn-missing-notification-email.html
@@ -1,10 +1,9 @@
 {% from "govuk/components/warning-text/macro.njk" import govukWarningText %}
 
-{% set html %}
-    If you want to receive a test email, <a target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" class="govuk-link" href="{{ config.designerUrl }}/library/{{ slug }}/edit/notification-email">enter the email address (opens in new tab)</a> you want form submissions to go to.
-{% endset %}
+{% set linkText %}{{ t('pages.preview.warnMissingNotificationEmail.linkText') }}{% endset %}
+{% set linkHtml %}<a target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" class="govuk-link" href="{{ config.designerUrl }}/library/{{ slug }}/edit/notification-email">{{ linkText }}</a>{% endset %}
 
 {{ govukWarningText({
-    html: html,
-    iconFallbackText: "Warning"
+    html: t('pages.preview.warnMissingNotificationEmail.body', { link: linkHtml }),
+    iconFallbackText: t('common.warningIconFallback')
 }) }}
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/repeat-list-summary.html b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/repeat-list-summary.html
index 81315fdbd..a6fcf4bbe 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/repeat-list-summary.html
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/repeat-list-summary.html
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@
 
       {% if errors %}
         {{ govukErrorSummary({
-          titleText: "There is a problem",
+          titleText: t('errors.title'),
           errorList: errors
         }) }}
       {% endif %}
@@ -29,14 +29,14 @@
 
         <div class="govuk-button-group">
           {{ govukButton({
-            text: "Continue",
+            text: t('pages.repeater.continue'),
             name: "action",
             value: "continue",
             preventDoubleClick: true
           }) }}
 
           {{ govukButton({
-            text: "Add another",
+            text: t('pages.repeater.addAnother'),
             name: "action",
             value: "add-another",
             classes: "govuk-button--secondary",
@@ -45,7 +45,7 @@
 
           {% if allowSaveAndExit %}
             {{ govukButton({
-              text: "Save and exit",
+              text: t('pages.repeater.saveAndExit'),
               classes: "govuk-button--secondary",
               name: "action",
               value: "save-and-exit",
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/summary.html b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/summary.html
index f87700720..8856c2263 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/engine/views/summary.html
+++ b/src/server/plugins/engine/views/summary.html
@@ -17,14 +17,14 @@
       {% if paymentState and paymentState.preAuth and paymentState.preAuth.status == 'success' %}
         {{ govukNotificationBanner({
           type: "success",
-          titleText: "Success",
-          html: "<h3 class=\"govuk-notification-banner__heading\">We have your payment details</h3><p class=\"govuk-body\">Your payment is on hold. We will charge you when you submit the form.</p>"
+          titleText: t('pages.summary.paymentSuccessBannerTitle'),
+          html: "<h3 class=\"govuk-notification-banner__heading\">" + t('pages.summary.paymentSuccessTitle') + "</h3><p class=\"govuk-body\">" + t('pages.summary.paymentSuccessBody') + "</p>"
         }) }}
       {% endif %}
 
       {% if errors %}
         {{ govukErrorSummary({
-          titleText: "There is a problem",
+          titleText: t('errors.title'),
           errorList: checkErrorTemplates(errors)
         }) }}
       {% endif %}
@@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ <h2 class="govuk-heading-m">
         {{ componentList(components) }}
 
         {% if declaration %}
-          <h2 class="govuk-heading-m" id="declaration">Declaration</h2>
+          <h2 class="govuk-heading-m" id="declaration">{{ t('pages.summary.declaration') }}</h2>
           <div class="govuk-body">
           {{ declaration | safe }}
           </div>
@@ -79,8 +79,7 @@ <h2 class="govuk-heading-m" id="declaration">Declaration</h2>
               For those with JS enabled, it will help prevent multiple submissions when a large form is taking a while to submit.
               When a better fix is implemented, this class can be removed and preventDoubleClick should be set back to true. #}
           {{ govukButton({
-            text: "Pay and submit" if paymentPending else ("Accept and submit" if isDeclaration else "Submit"),
-            classes: "prevent-multiple-clicks",
+            text: t('pages.summary.acceptAndSubmit') if isDeclaration else t('pages.summary.submit'),
             name: "action",
             value: "send",
             preventDoubleClick: false
@@ -88,7 +87,7 @@ <h2 class="govuk-heading-m" id="declaration">Declaration</h2>
 
           {% if allowSaveAndExit %}
             {{ govukButton({
-              text: "Save and exit",
+              text: t('pages.summary.saveAndExit'),
               classes: "govuk-button--secondary",
               name: "action",
               value: "save-and-exit",
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/enviroment.test.js b/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/enviroment.test.js
index 4bdb62cda..ccb68eaa2 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/enviroment.test.js
+++ b/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/enviroment.test.js
@@ -2,6 +2,18 @@ import * as helpers from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.js'
 import { environment } from '~/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/environment.js'
 
 describe('Nunjucks environment', () => {
+  describe('t global function', () => {
+    it('has t as a global function', () => {
+      const globals = /** @type {any} */ (environment).globals
+      expect(typeof globals.t).toBe('function')
+    })
+
+    it('t global returns the English string for a known key', () => {
+      const globals = /** @type {any} */ (environment).globals
+      expect(globals.t('errors.title')).toBe('There is a problem')
+    })
+  })
+
   describe('checkErrorTemplates function', () => {
     /** @type {Function} */
     let checkErrorTemplates
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/environment.js b/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/environment.js
index 91cb085fc..97a6d8cfd 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/environment.js
+++ b/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/environment.js
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ import resolvePkg from 'resolve'
 
 import { config } from '~/src/config/index.js'
 import { evaluateTemplate } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.js'
+import { t as i18nT } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/index.js'
 import * as filters from '~/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/filters/index.js'
 
 const govukFrontendPath = dirname(
@@ -115,6 +116,19 @@ export function govukRebrand() {
 
 environment.addGlobal('govukRebrand', govukRebrand())
 
+/**
+ * Global t() function — en-GB fallback for templates not wired to a specific language.
+ * Per-request page controllers override this by passing t in their view model.
+ * @param {string} key
+ * @param {Record<string, unknown>} [opts]
+ * @returns {string}
+ */
+export function tGlobal(key, opts) {
+  return i18nT(key, 'en-GB', opts)
+}
+
+environment.addGlobal('t', tGlobal)
+
 /**
  * @import { NunjucksContext } from '~/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/types.js'
  * @import { FormSubmissionError } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/filters/answer.js b/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/filters/answer.js
index cb7b84f2f..00ba8ddfa 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/filters/answer.js
+++ b/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/filters/answer.js
@@ -18,7 +18,11 @@ export function answer(name) {
     return undefined
   }
 
-  return getAnswer(/** @type {Field} */ (component), context.relevantState)
+  const field = /** @type {Field} */ (component)
+  const translator = field.model.createTranslator()
+  return getAnswer(field, context.relevantState, translator, {
+    format: 'summary'
+  })
 }
 
 /**
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/filters/answer.test.js b/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/filters/answer.test.js
index 603e8024a..1ba2b8135 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/filters/answer.test.js
+++ b/src/server/plugins/nunjucks/filters/answer.test.js
@@ -68,7 +68,14 @@ describe('answer Nunjucks filter', () => {
     it('returns the answer', () => {
       const mockFormComponent = {
         isFormComponent: true,
-        someProperty: 'value'
+        someProperty: 'value',
+        model: {
+          createTranslator: jest.fn().mockImplementation(() => {
+            return {
+              t: jest.fn().mockReturnValue('translated text')
+            }
+          })
+        }
       }
       mockThis.ctx.context?.componentMap.set(
         'validFormComponent',
@@ -80,7 +87,9 @@ describe('answer Nunjucks filter', () => {
 
       expect(getAnswer).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
         mockFormComponent,
-        mockThis.ctx.context?.relevantState
+        mockThis.ctx.context?.relevantState,
+        { t: expect.anything() },
+        { format: 'summary' }
       )
       expect(result).toBe('test answer')
     })
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/postcode-lookup/models/index.js b/src/server/plugins/postcode-lookup/models/index.js
index fefbd0a4d..8c7e953af 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/postcode-lookup/models/index.js
+++ b/src/server/plugins/postcode-lookup/models/index.js
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 import Joi from 'joi'
 
+import { t as i18nT } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/i18n/index.js'
 import * as service from '~/src/server/plugins/postcode-lookup/service.js'
 import { crumbSchema } from '~/src/server/schemas/index.js'
 
@@ -14,8 +15,6 @@ const townFieldName = 'town'
 const countyFieldName = 'county'
 const postcodeFieldName = 'postcode'
 
-const selectLabelText = 'Select an address'
-
 const GOVUK_MARGIN_RIGHT_1 = 'govuk-!-margin-right-1'
 
 export const steps = {
@@ -129,17 +128,23 @@ async function getAddresses(postcodeQuery, buildingNameQuery, apiKey) {
  * @param {PostcodeLookupDetailsData | undefined} details
  * @param {OptionalValidationErrorItem} postcodeQueryError
  * @param {OptionalValidationErrorItem} buildingNameQueryError
+ * @param {string} language
  */
-function getDetailsFields(details, postcodeQueryError, buildingNameQueryError) {
+function getDetailsFields(
+  details,
+  postcodeQueryError,
+  buildingNameQueryError,
+  language
+) {
   return {
     [postcodeQueryFieldName]: {
       id: postcodeQueryFieldName,
       name: postcodeQueryFieldName,
       label: {
-        text: 'Postcode'
+        text: i18nT('postcodeLookup.postcodeLabel', language)
       },
       hint: {
-        text: 'For example, AA3 1AB'
+        text: i18nT('postcodeLookup.postcodeHint', language)
       },
       value: details?.postcodeQuery,
       errorMessage: postcodeQueryError && { text: postcodeQueryError.message }
@@ -148,10 +153,10 @@ function getDetailsFields(details, postcodeQueryError, buildingNameQueryError) {
       id: buildingNameQueryFieldName,
       name: buildingNameQueryFieldName,
       label: {
-        text: 'Building name or number (optional)'
+        text: i18nT('postcodeLookup.buildingNameLabel', language)
       },
       hint: {
-        text: 'For example, 15 or Prospect Cottage'
+        text: i18nT('postcodeLookup.buildingNameHint', language)
       },
       value: details?.buildingNameQuery,
       errorMessage: buildingNameQueryError && {
@@ -169,6 +174,7 @@ function getDetailsFields(details, postcodeQueryError, buildingNameQueryError) {
  * @param {PostcodeLookupSelectPayload | undefined} payload
  * @param {OptionalValidationErrorItem} uprnError
  * @param {Address[]} addresses
+ * @param {string} language
  */
 function getSelectFields(
   details,
@@ -176,8 +182,11 @@ function getSelectFields(
   singleAddress,
   payload,
   uprnError,
-  addresses
+  addresses,
+  language
 ) {
+  const selectAddressText = i18nT('postcodeLookup.selectAddress', language)
+
   return {
     [postcodeQueryFieldName]: {
       id: postcodeQueryFieldName,
@@ -196,13 +205,13 @@ function getSelectFields(
       name: uprnFieldName,
       label: hasMultipleAddresses
         ? {
-            text: selectLabelText
+            text: selectAddressText
           }
         : undefined,
       value: singleAddress ? singleAddress.uprn : payload?.uprn,
       errorMessage: uprnError && { text: uprnError.message },
       items: hasMultipleAddresses
-        ? [{ text: selectLabelText, value: '' }].concat(
+        ? [{ text: selectAddressText, value: '' }].concat(
             addresses.map((item) => ({
               text: item.formatted,
               value: item.uprn
@@ -222,6 +231,7 @@ function getSelectFields(
  * @param {OptionalValidationErrorItem} townError
  * @param {OptionalValidationErrorItem} countyError
  * @param {OptionalValidationErrorItem} postcodeError
+ * @param {string} language
  */
 function getManualFields(
   payload,
@@ -229,14 +239,15 @@ function getManualFields(
   line2Error,
   townError,
   countyError,
-  postcodeError
+  postcodeError,
+  language
 ) {
   return {
     [line1FieldName]: {
       id: line1FieldName,
       name: line1FieldName,
       label: {
-        text: 'Address line 1'
+        text: i18nT('postcodeLookup.addressLine1Label', language)
       },
       value: payload?.addressLine1,
       errorMessage: line1Error && { text: line1Error.message }
@@ -245,7 +256,7 @@ function getManualFields(
       id: line2FieldName,
       name: line2FieldName,
       label: {
-        text: 'Address line 2 (optional)'
+        text: i18nT('postcodeLookup.addressLine2Label', language)
       },
       value: payload?.addressLine2,
       errorMessage: line2Error && { text: line2Error.message }
@@ -254,7 +265,7 @@ function getManualFields(
       id: townFieldName,
       name: townFieldName,
       label: {
-        text: 'Town or city'
+        text: i18nT('postcodeLookup.townLabel', language)
       },
       classes: 'govuk-!-width-two-thirds',
       value: payload?.town,
@@ -264,7 +275,7 @@ function getManualFields(
       id: countyFieldName,
       name: countyFieldName,
       label: {
-        text: 'County (optional)'
+        text: i18nT('postcodeLookup.countyLabel', language)
       },
       value: payload?.county,
       errorMessage: countyError && { text: countyError.message }
@@ -273,7 +284,7 @@ function getManualFields(
       id: postcodeFieldName,
       name: postcodeFieldName,
       label: {
-        text: 'Postcode'
+        text: i18nT('postcodeLookup.postcodeLabel', language)
       },
       classes: 'govuk-input--width-10',
       value: payload?.postcode,
@@ -293,66 +304,91 @@ const sharedPayloadSchemaKeys = {
 
 /**
  * Postcode lookup details form payload schema
- * @type {ObjectSchema<PostcodeLookupDetailsPayload>}
+ * @param {string} [language]
+ * @returns {ObjectSchema<PostcodeLookupDetailsPayload>}
  */
-export const detailsPayloadSchema = Joi.object()
-  .keys({
-    ...sharedPayloadSchemaKeys,
-    [postcodeQueryFieldName]: Joi.string()
-      .pattern(/^[a-zA-Z]{1,2}\d[a-zA-Z\d]?\s?\d[a-zA-Z]{2}$/)
-      .trim()
-      .required()
-      .messages({
-        'string.pattern.base':
-          'Enter a valid postcode or enter an address manually',
-        '*': 'Enter a postcode'
-      }),
-    [buildingNameQueryFieldName]: Joi.string()
-      .trim()
-      .required()
-      .allow('')
-      .trim()
-  })
-  .required()
+export function createDetailsPayloadSchema(language = 'en-GB') {
+  return Joi.object()
+    .keys({
+      ...sharedPayloadSchemaKeys,
+      [postcodeQueryFieldName]: Joi.string()
+        .pattern(/^[a-zA-Z]{1,2}\d[a-zA-Z\d]?\s?\d[a-zA-Z]{2}$/)
+        .trim()
+        .required()
+        .messages({
+          'string.pattern.base': i18nT(
+            'postcodeLookup.validation.invalidPostcode',
+            language
+          ),
+          '*': i18nT('postcodeLookup.validation.requiredPostcode', language)
+        }),
+      [buildingNameQueryFieldName]: Joi.string()
+        .trim()
+        .required()
+        .allow('')
+        .trim()
+    })
+    .required()
+}
 
 /**
  * Postcode lookup select form payload schema
- * @type {ObjectSchema<PostcodeLookupSelectPayload>}
+ * @param {string} [language]
+ * @returns {ObjectSchema<PostcodeLookupSelectPayload>}
  */
-export const selectPayloadSchema = Joi.object()
-  .keys({
-    ...sharedPayloadSchemaKeys,
-    [uprnFieldName]: Joi.string().required().messages({
-      '*': selectLabelText
+export function createSelectPayloadSchema(language = 'en-GB') {
+  return Joi.object()
+    .keys({
+      ...sharedPayloadSchemaKeys,
+      [uprnFieldName]: Joi.string()
+        .required()
+        .messages({
+          '*': i18nT('postcodeLookup.validation.selectAddress', language)
+        })
     })
-  })
-  .required()
+    .required()
+}
 
 /**
  * Postcode lookup manual form payload schema
- * @type {ObjectSchema<PostcodeLookupManualPayload>}
+ * @param {string} [language]
+ * @returns {ObjectSchema<PostcodeLookupManualPayload>}
  */
-export const manualPayloadSchema = Joi.object()
-  .keys({
-    ...sharedPayloadSchemaKeys,
-    [line1FieldName]: Joi.string().trim().required().messages({
-      '*': 'Enter address line 1'
-    }),
-    [line2FieldName]: Joi.string().trim().allow('').required(),
-    [townFieldName]: Joi.string().trim().required().messages({
-      '*': 'Enter town or city'
-    }),
-    [countyFieldName]: Joi.string().trim().allow('').required(),
-    [postcodeFieldName]: Joi.string()
-      .pattern(/^[a-zA-Z]{1,2}\d[a-zA-Z\d]?\s?\d[a-zA-Z]{2}$/)
-      .trim()
-      .required()
-      .messages({
-        'string.pattern.base': 'Enter a valid postcode',
-        '*': 'Enter postcode'
-      })
-  })
-  .required()
+export function createManualPayloadSchema(language = 'en-GB') {
+  return Joi.object()
+    .keys({
+      ...sharedPayloadSchemaKeys,
+      [line1FieldName]: Joi.string()
+        .trim()
+        .required()
+        .messages({
+          '*': i18nT('postcodeLookup.validation.requiredAddressLine1', language)
+        }),
+      [line2FieldName]: Joi.string().trim().allow('').required(),
+      [townFieldName]: Joi.string()
+        .trim()
+        .required()
+        .messages({
+          '*': i18nT('postcodeLookup.validation.requiredTown', language)
+        }),
+      [countyFieldName]: Joi.string().trim().allow('').required(),
+      [postcodeFieldName]: Joi.string()
+        .pattern(/^[a-zA-Z]{1,2}\d[a-zA-Z\d]?\s?\d[a-zA-Z]{2}$/)
+        .trim()
+        .required()
+        .messages({
+          'string.pattern.base': i18nT(
+            'postcodeLookup.validation.invalidManualPostcode',
+            language
+          ),
+          '*': i18nT(
+            'postcodeLookup.validation.requiredManualPostcode',
+            language
+          )
+        })
+    })
+    .required()
+}
 
 /**
  * Get the postcode lookup href
@@ -371,7 +407,12 @@ function getHref(step) {
  * @param {Error} [err]
  */
 export function detailsViewModel(data, payload, err) {
-  const { componentTitle: pageTitle, formName, sourceUrl } = data.initial
+  const {
+    componentTitle: pageTitle,
+    formName,
+    sourceUrl,
+    language = 'en-GB'
+  } = data.initial
 
   const backLink = {
     href: sourceUrl
@@ -380,20 +421,19 @@ export function detailsViewModel(data, payload, err) {
   const { errors, postcodeQueryError, buildingNameQueryError } =
     buildErrors(err)
 
-  // Model fields
   const fields = getDetailsFields(
     payload ?? data.details,
     postcodeQueryError,
-    buildingNameQueryError
+    buildingNameQueryError,
+    language
   )
 
-  // Model buttons
   const continueButton = {
-    text: 'Find address',
+    text: i18nT('postcodeLookup.findAddress', language),
     classes: GOVUK_MARGIN_RIGHT_1
   }
   const manualLink = {
-    text: 'enter address manually',
+    text: i18nT('postcodeLookup.enterManually', language),
     href: getHref(steps.manual)
   }
 
@@ -420,8 +460,8 @@ export async function selectViewModel(data, payload, err) {
   const { session, apiKey } = data
   const { details, initial } = session
   const { postcodeQuery, buildingNameQuery } = details
+  const language = initial.language ?? 'en-GB'
 
-  // Search for addresses
   const {
     hasAddresses,
     hasMultipleAddresses,
@@ -430,7 +470,9 @@ export async function selectViewModel(data, payload, err) {
     addressCount
   } = await getAddresses(postcodeQuery, buildingNameQuery, apiKey)
 
-  const title = hasAddresses ? initial.componentTitle : 'No address found'
+  const title = hasAddresses
+    ? initial.componentTitle
+    : i18nT('postcodeLookup.noAddressFoundTitle', language)
   const formPath = initial.sourceUrl
   const href = getHref()
 
@@ -438,32 +480,42 @@ export async function selectViewModel(data, payload, err) {
 
   const { errors, uprnError } = buildErrors(err)
 
-  // Model fields
   const fields = getSelectFields(
     details,
     hasMultipleAddresses,
     singleAddress,
     payload,
     uprnError,
-    addresses
+    addresses,
+    language
   )
 
+  const searchAgainText = i18nT('postcodeLookup.searchAgain', language)
+
   const searchAgainLink = {
-    text: 'Search again',
+    text: searchAgainText,
     href
   }
 
-  // Model buttons
   const continueButton = {
     href: hasAddresses ? undefined : href,
-    text: hasAddresses ? 'Use this address' : 'Search again',
+    text: hasAddresses
+      ? i18nT('postcodeLookup.useThisAddress', language)
+      : searchAgainText,
     classes: GOVUK_MARGIN_RIGHT_1
   }
   const manualLink = {
-    text: 'enter address manually',
+    text: i18nT('postcodeLookup.enterManually', language),
     href: `${href}?step=${steps.manual}`
   }
 
+  const addressesFoundText = hasAddresses
+    ? i18nT('postcodeLookup.addressFound', language, { count: addressCount })
+    : undefined
+  const noAddressFoundText = !hasAddresses
+    ? i18nT('postcodeLookup.noAddressFoundBody', language)
+    : undefined
+
   return {
     step: steps.select,
     showTitle: true,
@@ -479,6 +531,8 @@ export async function selectViewModel(data, payload, err) {
     singleAddress,
     hasAddresses,
     hasMultipleAddresses,
+    addressesFoundText,
+    noAddressFoundText,
     buttons: { continueButton, manualLink }
   }
 }
@@ -490,7 +544,12 @@ export async function selectViewModel(data, payload, err) {
  * @param {Error} [err]
  */
 export function manualViewModel(data, payload, err) {
-  const { componentTitle, sourceUrl, componentHint } = data.initial
+  const {
+    componentTitle,
+    sourceUrl,
+    componentHint,
+    language = 'en-GB'
+  } = data.initial
   const formPath = sourceUrl
   const href = getHref()
 
@@ -507,28 +566,26 @@ export function manualViewModel(data, payload, err) {
     postcodeError
   } = buildErrors(err)
 
-  // Model hint
   const hint = componentHint && {
     text: componentHint
   }
 
-  // Model fields
   const fields = getManualFields(
     payload,
     line1Error,
     line2Error,
     townError,
     countyError,
-    postcodeError
+    postcodeError,
+    language
   )
 
-  // Model buttons
   const continueButton = {
-    text: 'Use this address',
+    text: i18nT('postcodeLookup.useThisAddress', language),
     classes: GOVUK_MARGIN_RIGHT_1
   }
   const detailsLink = {
-    text: 'find an address instead',
+    text: i18nT('postcodeLookup.findAnAddressInstead', language),
     href
   }
 
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/postcode-lookup/routes/index.js b/src/server/plugins/postcode-lookup/routes/index.js
index 63a87bdd6..95e220ed7 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/postcode-lookup/routes/index.js
+++ b/src/server/plugins/postcode-lookup/routes/index.js
@@ -5,11 +5,11 @@ import Joi from 'joi'
 import { EXTERNAL_STATE_APPENDAGE } from '~/src/server/constants.js'
 import {
   JOURNEY_BASE_URL,
-  detailsPayloadSchema,
+  createDetailsPayloadSchema,
+  createManualPayloadSchema,
+  createSelectPayloadSchema,
   detailsViewModel,
-  manualPayloadSchema,
   manualViewModel,
-  selectPayloadSchema,
   selectViewModel,
   stepSchema,
   steps
@@ -172,12 +172,10 @@ function postRoute(options) {
 async function detailsPostHandler(request, h, options) {
   const session = getSessionState(request)
   const { ordnanceSurveyApiKey: apiKey } = options
-
-  /** @type {{ value: PostcodeLookupDetailsPayload, error?: import('joi').ValidationError }} */
-  // eslint-disable-next-line @typescript-eslint/no-unsafe-assignment
-  const { value: details, error } = detailsPayloadSchema.validate(
-    request.payload
-  )
+  const language = session.initial.language ?? 'en-GB'
+  const { value: details, error } = createDetailsPayloadSchema(
+    language
+  ).validate(request.payload)
 
   let model
 
@@ -207,10 +205,10 @@ async function detailsPostHandler(request, h, options) {
 async function selectPostHandler(request, h, options) {
   const session = getSessionState(request)
   const { ordnanceSurveyApiKey: apiKey } = options
-
-  /** @type {{ value: PostcodeLookupSelectPayload, error?: import('joi').ValidationError }} */
-  // eslint-disable-next-line @typescript-eslint/no-unsafe-assignment
-  const { value: select, error } = selectPayloadSchema.validate(request.payload)
+  const language = session.initial.language ?? 'en-GB'
+  const { value: select, error } = createSelectPayloadSchema(language).validate(
+    request.payload
+  )
 
   if (error) {
     const model = await selectViewModel({ session, apiKey }, select, error)
@@ -239,10 +237,9 @@ async function selectPostHandler(request, h, options) {
  */
 function manualPostHandler(request, h) {
   const session = getSessionState(request)
+  const language = session.initial.language ?? 'en-GB'
 
-  /** @type {{ value: PostcodeLookupManualPayload, error?: import('joi').ValidationError }} */
-  // eslint-disable-next-line @typescript-eslint/no-unsafe-assignment
-  const { value: manual, error } = manualPayloadSchema.validate(
+  const { value: manual, error } = createManualPayloadSchema(language).validate(
     request.payload,
     {
       abortEarly: false
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/postcode-lookup/types.js b/src/server/plugins/postcode-lookup/types.js
index 49ca24a11..4d6d1065f 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/postcode-lookup/types.js
+++ b/src/server/plugins/postcode-lookup/types.js
@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@
  *   componentTitle: string,
  *   componentHint?: string
  *   step?: string
+ *   language?: string
  * }} PostcodeLookupDispatchData
  */
 
diff --git a/src/server/plugins/postcode-lookup/views/postcode-lookup-details.html b/src/server/plugins/postcode-lookup/views/postcode-lookup-details.html
index 8c99c4c88..712a074aa 100644
--- a/src/server/plugins/postcode-lookup/views/postcode-lookup-details.html
+++ b/src/server/plugins/postcode-lookup/views/postcode-lookup-details.html
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@
     <div class="govuk-grid-column-two-thirds">
       {% if errors %}
         {{ govukErrorSummary({
-          titleText: "There is a problem",
+          titleText: t('errors.title'),
           errorList: errors
         }) }}
       {% endif %}
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@
 
             {% if hasAddresses %}
               <p class="govuk-body">
-                {{addressCount}} address{{ "es" if hasMultipleAddresses }} found for {{ detailsHtml | safe }}. <a href="{{ searchAgainLink.href }}" class="govuk-link govuk-link--no-visited-state">{{ searchAgainLink.text }}</a>
+                {{ addressesFoundText }} {{ detailsHtml | safe }}. <a href="{{ searchAgainLink.href }}" class="govuk-link govuk-link--no-visited-state">{{ searchAgainLink.text }}</a>
               </p>
             {% endif %}
 
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@
               }) }}
             {% else %}
               <!-- No addresses found - show try again -->
-              <p class="govuk-body">We could not find an address that matches {{ detailsHtml | safe }}.</p>
+              <p class="govuk-body">{{ noAddressFoundText }} {{ detailsHtml | safe }}.</p>
             {% endif %}
           {% case "manual" %}
             <!-- Postcode lookup manual entry -->
diff --git a/src/server/types.ts b/src/server/types.ts
index c51ba9390..35149a915 100644
--- a/src/server/types.ts
+++ b/src/server/types.ts
@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@ import { type FormModel } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/index.js'
 import { type DetailItem } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/models/types.js'
 import { type PageController } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/pageControllers/PageController.js'
 import {
+  type AnyFormRequest,
   type FormContext,
   type OnRequestCallback,
   type PluginOptions,
@@ -59,6 +60,7 @@ export interface RouteConfig {
   cacheServiceCreator?: (server: Server) => CacheService
   ordnanceSurveyApiKey?: string
   ordnanceSurveyApiSecret?: string
+  getLanguage?: (request: AnyFormRequest, metadata?: FormMetadata) => string
 }
 
 export interface OutputService {
diff --git a/src/server/utils/utils.js b/src/server/utils/utils.js
index a4f9d44c9..c0653f70b 100644
--- a/src/server/utils/utils.js
+++ b/src/server/utils/utils.js
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@ import { getTraceId } from '@defra/hapi-tracing'
 import Joi from 'joi'
 
 import { config } from '~/src/config/index.js'
+import { getPluginOptions } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/helpers.js'
 
 /**
  * Returns a set of headers to use in an HTTP request, merging them with any existing headers in options.
@@ -33,3 +34,17 @@ export function isValidUUID(str) {
   const { error } = Joi.string().uuid().validate(str)
   return error === undefined
 }
+
+/**
+ * @param {AnyFormRequest} request
+ * @param {FormMetadata} [metadata]
+ */
+export function resolveLanguage(request, metadata) {
+  const { getLanguage } = getPluginOptions(request.server)
+  return getLanguage?.(request, metadata) ?? 'en-GB'
+}
+
+/**
+ * @import { FormMetadata } from '@defra/forms-model'
+ * @import { AnyFormRequest } from '~/src/server/plugins/engine/types.js'
+ */
diff --git a/src/typings/hapi/index.d.ts b/src/typings/hapi/index.d.ts
index dcfff8c73..e61d5c32f 100644
--- a/src/typings/hapi/index.d.ts
+++ b/src/typings/hapi/index.d.ts
@@ -38,6 +38,7 @@ declare module '@hapi/hapi' {
         request: AnyFormRequest | null
       ) => Record<string, unknown> | Promise<Record<string, unknown>>
       saveAndExit?: PluginOptions['saveAndExit']
+      getLanguage?: PluginOptions['getLanguage']
       baseUrl: string
       services: PluginOptions['services']
     }
diff --git a/test/form/govuk-notify.test.js b/test/form/govuk-notify.test.js
index 8b83b2db1..49c6dbbc8 100644
--- a/test/form/govuk-notify.test.js
+++ b/test/form/govuk-notify.test.js
@@ -235,7 +235,7 @@ describe('Submission journey test', () => {
 
           ## Upload your methodology statement
 
-          Uploaded 1 file:
+          1 file uploaded:
 
           * [test\\.pdf](https://forms-designer/file-download/5a76a1a3-bc8a-4bc0-859a-116d775c7f15)